Skip to Main Content

Clinical Psychology and Special Education
2020. Vol. 9, no. 1, 17–46
doi:10.17759/cpse.2020090102
ISSN: 2304-0394 (online)

Neural Mechanisms of Theory of Mind in Autism and Schizophrenia: A Review of fMRI Studies

806

M.A. Iosifyan, E.A. Mershina, D.A. Bazhenova, V.E. Sinitsyn, O.M. Larina, E.V. Pechenkova

PDF (RUS)
Online translation in english
GS
Information
in Google Scholar

Abstract

Theory of mind is a cognitive ability, which enables to understand intentions, emotions and beliefs of another person. Because of theory of mind, people are able to interpret behavior of others and adapt to it. Numerous psychiatric impairments are associated with damaged theory of mind and communication with others. The present review analyses the impairments of theory of mind as laying on a continuum from hypermentalization (over-attribution of intentions to others) to hypomentalization (under-attribution of intentions to others) in autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia. FMRI paradigm of different subprocesses of theory of mind is described (perceptual mind-reading, cognitive theory of mind, “hot” theory of mind and implicit theory of mind). Neural mechanisms of these subprocesses and their impairments in autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia analyzed.

General Information

Keywords: utism spectrum disorders; schizophrenia; fMRI; mentalization; Theory of Mind

Journal rubric: Theoretical Research

Article type: scientific article

DOI: https://doi.org/10.17759/cpse.2020090102

Funding. this research is conducted and funded in accordance with Lomonosov Moscow State University state assignment, topic No. АААА-А19-119120690098-6

For citation: Iosifyan M.A., Mershina E.A., Bazhenova D.A., Sinitsyn V.E., Larina O.M., Pechenkova E.V. Neural Mechanisms of Theory of Mind in Autism and Schizophrenia: A Review of fMRI Studies [Elektronnyi resurs]. Klinicheskaia i spetsial'naia psikhologiia = Clinical Psychology and Special Education, 2020. Vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 17–46. DOI: 10.17759/cpse.2020090102. (In Russ., аbstr. in Engl.)

References

  1. Zotov M.V., Andrianova N.E., Voyt A.P. «Niskhodyashchee» i «voskhodyashchee» sovmestnoe vnimanie v neverbal'noj kommunikacii [Top-down and bottom-up joint attention in nonverbal communication]. Rossijskij Zhurnal Kognitivnoj Nauki [The Russian Journal of Cognitive Science], 2015, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 6−23.  (In Russ., Abstr. in Engl.)
  2. Kritskaya V.P., Meleshko T.K., Poliakov Yu.F. Patologiya psikhicheskoi deyatel'nosti pri shizofrenii [Mental functions anomaly in schizophrenia]. Moscow: publ. of MSU, 1991. 256 p. (In Russ.)
  3. Melekhin A.I. Mental'nye resursy v pozhilom i starcheskom vozraste. Diss. kand. psikhol. nauk. [Mental resources in older age. PhD (Psychology) diss.]. Moscow, 2019.
    291 p. (In Russ.)
  4. Rumyantseva E.E. Model' psikhicheskogo (theory of mind) i neirokognitivnoe funktsionirovanie pri shizofrenii [Theory of mind and neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenia]. Klinicheskaya i spetsial'naya psikhologiya [Clinical and Special Psychology], 2015, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 77−85. https://psyjournals.ru/files/79209/psyclin _2015_n3_Rumjanceva.pdf (Accessed: 25.03.2020). (In Russ., Abstr. in Engl.)
  5. Sergienko E.A., Lebedeva E.I., Ylanova A.Yu. Model' psikhicheskogo - sposobnost' ponimaniya mira lyudei [Theory of mind - an ability to understand human's world]. In
    A.L. Zhuravlev, E.A. Sergienko (eds.), Razrabotka ponyatii sovremennoi psikhologii [Development of the Modern Psychology's Notions]. Moscow: publ. of Institut psikhologii RAN, 2018, pp. 269−342. (In Russ.)
  6. Sokolova E.T. Klinicheskaya psikhologiya utraty Ya [Clinical psychology of Self loss]. Moscow: Smysl, 2015. 896 p. (In Russ.)
  7. Kholmogorova A.B., et al. Sravnenie sposobnosti k mentalizacii u bol'nyh shizofreniej i shizoaffektivnym psihozom na osnove metodiki «Ponimanie psihicheskogo sostoyaniya po glazam» [Comparison of the ability to mentalization in patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective psychosis based on the methodology «Understanding the mental state of the eyes»]. Eksperimental'naya psihologiya [Experimental Psychology (Russia)], 2015, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 99−117. doi:10.17759/exppsy.2015080310 (In Russ, Abstr. in Engl.)
  8. Abell F., Happé F., Frith U. Do triangles play tricks? Attribution of mental states to animated shapes in normal and abnormal development. Cognitive Development, 2000,
    vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 1−16. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2008.07.020
  9. Achával D. de, et al. Decreased activity in right-hemisphere structures involved in social cognition in siblings discordant for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 2012,
    vol. 134, no. 2-3, pp. 171−179. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2011.11.010
  10. Adams R.B., et al. Cross-cultural reading the mind in the eyes: An fMRI investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2010, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 97−108. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21187

  11. VandenBos G.R. APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association, 2007. 1204 p.
  12. Bambini V., et al. The communicative impairment as a core feature of schizophrenia: Frequency of pragmatic deficit, cognitive substrates, and relation with quality of life. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 2016, vol. 71, pp. 106−120. doi:10.1016/ j.comppsych.2016.08.012
  13. Baron-Cohen S., Hammer J. Parents of children with Asperger syndrome: What is the cognitive phenotype? Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1997, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 548−554. doi:10.1162/jocn.1997.9.4.548
  14. Baron-Cohen S., Leslie A., Frith U. Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 1985, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 37−46. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8
  15. Baron-Cohen S., et al. The amygdala theory of autism. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2000, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 355−364. doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(00)00011-7
  16. Baron-Cohen S., et al. fMRI of parents of children with Asperger Syndrome: A pilot study. Brain and Cognition, 2006, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 122−130. doi:10.1016/j.bandc. 2005.12.011
  17. Baron-Cohen S., et al. The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test revised version:
    A study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger Syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2001, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 241−251. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00715
  18. Bateman A.W., Fonagy P. Mentalization-based treatment of BPD. Journal of Personality Disorders, 2004, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 36−51. doi:10.1521/pedi.18.1.36.32772
  19. Bliksted V., et al. Hyper- and hypomentalizing in patients with first-episode schizophrenia: fMRI and behavioral studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 2018, vol. 45, no. 2,
    pp. 377−385. doi:10.1093/schbul/sby027
  20. Bora E., Yucel M., Pantelis C. Theory of mind impairment in schizophrenia: Meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 2009, vol. 109, no. 1-3, pp. 1−9. doi:10.1016/j.schres. 2008.12.020
  21. Bora E., Yücel M., Pantelis C. Theory of mind impairment: a distinct trait-marker for schizophrenia spectrum disorders and bipolar disorder? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 2009, vol. 120, no. 4, pp. 253−264. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01414.x
  22. Brothers L. The social brain: A project for integrating primate behavior and neurophysiology in a new domain. Concepts Neurosci, 1990, vol. 1, pp. 27−51. doi:10.7551/mitpress/3077.003.0029
  23. Brüne M., et al. An fMRI study of theory of mind in schizophrenic patients with “passivity” symptoms. Neuropsychologia, 2008, vol. 46, no. 7, pp. 1992−2001. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.01.023
  24. Castelli F., et al. Autism, Asperger syndrome and brain mechanisms for the attribution of mental states to animated shapes. Brain, 2002, vol. 125, no. 8,
    pp. 1839−1849. doi:10.1093/brain/awf189
  25. Chevallier C., et al. The social motivation theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2012, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 231−239. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.02.007
  26. Corden B., Chilvers R., Skuse D. Emotional modulation of perception in Asperger's syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2007, vol. 38, no. 6,
    pp. 1072−1080. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0485-y
  27. Crespi B., Badcock C. Psychosis and autism as diametrical disorders of the social brain. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2008, vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 241−261. doi:10.1017 /s0140525x08004214
  28. Dalton K.M., et al. Gaze-fixation, brain activation, and amygdala volume in unaffected siblings of individuals with autism. Biological Psychiatry, 2007, vol. 61, no. 4,
    pp. 512−520. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.05.019
  29. Das P., et al. Mentalizing impairment in schizophrenia: A functional MRI study. Schizophrenia Research, 2012, vol. 134, no. 2-3, pp. 158−164. doi:10.1016/j.schres. 2011.08.019
  30. Dennis M., et al. Cognitive, affective, and conative theory of mind (ToM) in children with traumatic brain injury. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2013, vol. 5, pp. 25−39. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2012.11.006
  31. Dziobek I., et al. Introducing MASC: A movie for the assessment of social cognition. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2006, vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 623−636. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0107-0
  32. Fishman I., et al. Atypical cross talk between mentalizing and mirror neuron networks in autism spectrum disorder. JAMA Psychiatry, 2014, vol. 71, no. 7, p. 751. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.83
  33. Fletcher P.C., et al. Other minds in the brain: A functional imaging study of “theory of mind” in story comprehension. Cognition, 1995, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 109−128. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(95)00692-r
  34. Fretland R.A., et al. Theory of mind in schizophrenia: Error types and associations with symptoms. Schizophrenia Research, 2015, vol. 162, no. 1-3, pp. 42−46. doi:10.1016/ j.schres.2015.01.024
  35. Frith U., Frith C.D. Development and neurophysiology of mentalizing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 2003, vol. 358,
    no. 1431, pp. 459−473. doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1218
  36. Happé F., et al. `Theory of mind' in the brain. Evidence from a PET scan study of Asperger syndrome. NeuroReport, 1996, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 197−201. doi:10.1097/00001756-199612200-00040
  37. Happé F.G. An advanced test of theory of mind: Understanding of story characters' thoughts and feelings by able autistic, mentally handicapped, and normal children and adults. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1994, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 129−154. doi:10.1007/bf02172093
  38. Happé F.G. The role of age and verbal ability in the theory of mind task performance of subjects with autism. Child Development, 1995, vol. 66, no. 3, p. 843. doi:10.2307/1131954
  39. Hooren S. van, et al. Social cognition and neurocognition as independent domains in psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 2008, vol. 103, no. 1-3, pp. 257−265. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2008.02.022
  40. Horan W.P., et al. Social cognitive skills training in schizophrenia: An initial efficacy study of stabilized outpatients. Schizophrenia Research, 2009, vol. 107, no. 1, pp. 47−54. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2008.09.006
  41. Hyde D.C., Betancourt M.A., Simon C.E. Human temporal-parietal junction spontaneously tracks others' beliefs: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. Human Brain Mapping, 2015, vol. 36, no. 12, pp. 4831−4846. doi:10.1002/hbm.22953
  42. Kalbe E., et al. Elevated emotional reactivity in affective but not cognitive components of theory of mind: A psychophysiological study. Journal of Neuropsychology, 2007, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 27−38. doi:10.1348/174866407x180792
  43. Kana R.K., et al. Atypical frontal-posterior synchronization of Theory of Mind regions in autism during mental state attribution. Social Neuroscience, 2009, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 135−152. doi:10.1080/17470910802198510
  44. Kana R.K., Wadsworth H.M. “The archeologist's career ended in ruins”: Hemispheric differences in pun comprehension in autism. NeuroImage, 2012, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 77−86. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.034
  45. Kelemen O., et al. Theory of mind and motion perception in schizophrenia. Neuropsychology, 2005, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 494−500. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.19.4.494
  46. Kennedy D.P., Adolphs R. The social brain in psychiatric and neurological disorders. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2012, vol. 16, no. 11, pp. 559−572. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.09.006
  47. Keshavan M.S., et al. Schizophrenia, “just the facts” what we know in 2008. 2. part 3: neurobiology.. Schizophrenia Research, 2008, vol. 106, no. 2-3, pp. 89−107. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2008.07.020
  48. Koster-Hale J. Saxe R. Functional neuroimaging of theory of mind. In S. Baron-Cohen, M. Lombardo, H. Tager-Flusberg (eds.), Understanding Other Minds: Perspectives from Social Cognitive Neuroscience. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 132−163.
  49. Kozhuharova P., et al. Neural correlates of social cognition in populations at risk of psychosis: A systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2020, vol. 108, pp. 94−111. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.10.010
  50. Kronbichler L., et al. Abnormal brain activation during theory of mind tasks in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 2017, vol. 43, no. 6, pp. 1240−1250. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx073
  51. Lee J., et al. Theory of mind in schizophrenia: Exploring neural mechanisms of belief attribution. Social Neuroscience, 2011, vol. 6, no. 5-6, pp. 569−581. doi:10.1080/17470919.2011.620774
  52. Michotte A. The perception of causality. New York: Basic Book, 1963. 424 p.
  53. Mitchley N.J., et al. Comprehension of irony in Schizophrenia. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 1998, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 127−138. doi:10.1080/135468098396206
  54. Mo S., et al. Comprehension of metaphor and irony in schizophrenia during remission: The role of theory of mind and IQ. Psychiatry Research, 2008, vol. 157, no. 1-3, pp. 21−29. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2006.04.002
  55. Montag C., et al. Different aspects of theory of mind in paranoid schizophrenia: Evidence from a video-based assessment. Psychiatry Research, 2011, vol. 186, no. 2-3,
    pp. 203−209. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.09.006
  56. Nijhof A.D., et al. Brain activity for spontaneous and explicit mentalizing in adults with autism spectrum disorder: An fMRI study. NeuroImage: Clinical, 2018, vol. 18,
    pp. 475−484. doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2018.02.016
  57. Oberman L.M., et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation in autism spectrum disorder: Challenges, promise, and roadmap for future research. Autism Research, 2015, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 184−203. doi:10.1002/aur.1567
  58. Ogawa S., et al. Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 1990, vol. 87, no. 24, pp. 9868−9872. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.24.9868
  59. Orlov N.D., et al. Stimulating thought: A functional MRI study of transcranial direct current stimulation in schizophrenia. Brain, 2017, vol. 140, no. 9, pp. 2490−2497. doi:10.1093/brain/awx170
  60. Perner J., Clements W.A. From an implicit to an explicit “Theory of Mind”. In
    Y. Revonsuo, A. Rossetti (eds.), Beyond dissociation: Interaction Between Dissociated Implicit and Explicit Processing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2000, pp. 273−294.
  61. Peyroux E., et al. From “under” to “over” social cognition in schizophrenia: Is there distinct profiles of impairments according to negative and positive symptoms? Schizophrenia Research: Cognition, 2019, vol. 15, pp. 21−29. doi:10.1016/j.scog.2018. 10.001

  62. Rapp A.M., Mutschler D.E., Erb M. Where in the brain is nonliteral language?
    A coordinate-based meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. NeuroImage, 2012, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 600−610. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.06.022
  63. Regier D.A., Kuhl E.A., Kupfer D.J. The DSM-5: Classification and criteria changes. World Psychiatry, 2013, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 92−98. doi:10.1002/wps.20050
  64. Russell T.A., et al. Do you see what I see? Interpretations of intentional movement in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 2006, vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 101−111. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2005.10.002
  65. Russell T.A., et al. Exploring the social brain in schizophrenia: Left prefrontal underactivation during mental state attribution. American Journal of Psychiatry, 2000,
    vol. 157, no. 12, pp. 2040−2042. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.12.2040
  66. Ryan N.P., et al. Uncovering the neuroanatomical correlates of cognitive, affective and conative theory of mind in pediatric traumatic brain injury: a neural systems perspective. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2017, vol. 12, no. 9, pp. 1414−1427. doi:10.1093/scan/nsx066
  67. Sabbagh M.A., Moulson M.C., Harkness K.L. Neural correlates of mental state decoding in human adults: An event-related potential study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2004, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 415−426. doi:10.1162/089892904322926755
  68. Sabbagh M.A., Taylor M. Neural correlates of theory-of-mind reasoning: An event-related potential study. Psychological Science, 2000, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 46−50. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00213
  69. Savla G.N., et al. Deficits in domains of social cognition in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of the empirical evidence. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 2012, vol. 39, no. 5, pp. 979−992. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbs080
  70. Saxe R. Why and how to study Theory of Mind with fMRI. Brain Research, 2006,
    vol. 1079, no. 1, pp. 57−65. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2006.01.001
  71. Saxe R., Kanwisher N. People thinking about thinking people: The role of the temporo-parietal junction in “theory of mind”. NeuroImage, 2003, vol. 19, no. 4,
    pp. 1835−1842. doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00230-1
  72. Schilbach L., et al. Transdiagnostic commonalities and differences in resting state functional connectivity of the default mode network in schizophrenia and major depression. NeuroImage: Clinical, 2016, vol. 10, pp. 326−335. doi:10.1016/ j.nicl.2015.11.021
  73. Senju A., et al. Mindblind eyes: an absence of spontaneous theory of mind in Asperger syndrome. Science, 2009, vol. 325, no. 5942, pp. 883−885. doi:10.1126/science.1176170
    Shamay-Tsoory S.G., et al. Impaired “affective theory of mind” is associated with right ventromedial prefrontal damage. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology, 2005, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 55−67. doi:10.1097/01.wnn.0000152228.90129.99
  74. Singer T., Decety J. Social neuroscience of empathy. In J. Decety & J. T. Cacioppo (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Social Neuroscience. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 551−565.
  75. Southgate V., Senju A., Csibra G. Action anticipation through attribution of false belief by 2-year-olds. Psychological Science, 2007, vol. 18, no. 7, pp. 587−592. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01944.x
  76. Sprong M., et al. Theory of mind in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 2007, vol. 191, no. 1, pp. 5−13. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.035899
  77. Stone V.E., et al. Acquired theory of mind impairments in individuals with bilateral amygdala lesions. Neuropsychologia, 2003, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 209−220. doi:10.1016/s0028-3932(02)00151-3
  78. Strikwerda-Brown C., Ramanan S., Irish M. Neurocognitive mechanisms of theory of mind impairment in neurodegeneration: A transdiagnostic approach. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 2019, Vol. 15, pp. 557−573. doi:10.2147/ndt.s158996
  79. Tantam D. Asperger syndrome in adulthood. In U. Frith (ed.), Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991, pp. 147−183. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511526770.005
  80. Ventura J., et al. Neurocognition and symptoms identify links between facial recognition and emotion processing in schizophrenia: Meta-analytic findings. Schizophrenia Research, 2013, vol. 151, no. 1-3, pp. 78−84. doi:10.1016/j.schres. 2013.10.015
  81. Völlm B.A., et al. Neuronal correlates of theory of mind and empathy: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study in a nonverbal task. NeuroImage, 2006, vol. 29, no. 1,
    pp. 90−98. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.07.022
  82. Wang A.T., et al. Neural basis of irony comprehension in children with autism: The role of prosody and context. Brain, 2006, vol. 129, no. 4, pp. 932−943. doi:10.1093/brain/awl032
  83. Wang A.T., et al. Reading affect in the face and voice. Archives of General Psychiatry, 2007, vol. 64, no. 6, p. 698. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.6.698
  84. Wellman H.M., Liu D. Scaling of theory-of-mind tasks. Child Development, 2004, vol. 75, no. 2, pp. 523−541. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00691.x
  85. Wing L. The continuum of autistic characteristics. In E. Schopler, G. Mesibov (eds.), Diagnosis and Assessment in Autism. Current Issues in Autism. Boston, MA: Springer, 1988, pp. 91−110.

Information About the Authors

Marina A. Iosifyan, PhD in Psychology, Research Associate, Department of Neuro- and Pathopsychology, Faculty of Psychology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6617-5116, e-mail: marina.iosifyan@gmail.com

Elena A. Mershina, PhD in Medicine, Head of CT and MRI Unit at Radiology Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University Medical Research and Educational Center, Moscow, Russia, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1266-4926, e-mail: elena_mershina@mail.ru

Daria A. Bazhenova, Radiologist, Radiology Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University Medical Research and Educational Center, Moscow, Russia, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7757-6273, e-mail: bazhenova.darya@gmail.com

Valentin E. Sinitsyn, Doctor of Medicine, Professor, Head of Radiology Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University Medical Research and Educational Center, Moscow, Russia, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5649-2193, e-mail: vsini@mail.ru

Olga M. Larina, PhD in Medicine, Radiologist, Radiology Department, omonosov Moscow State University Medical Research and Educational Center, Moscow, Russia, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2484-5249, e-mail: larina-olga@yandex.ru

Ekaterina V. Pechenkova, PhD in Psychology, Leading research fellow, Laboratory for Cognitive Research, Department of Psychology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3409-3703, e-mail: evpech@gmail.com

Metrics

Views

Total: 3010
Previous month: 23
Current month: 0

Downloads

Total: 806
Previous month: 7
Current month: 0