Self-Objectification, Social Media and Mental Health

The paper presents a review of foreign studies on social and psychopathological consequences of self-objectification. The chief provisions of self-objectification theory, which is briefly discussed in the paper, includes the subject’s disposition to regard one’s body from the point of view of an external spectator, when one’s value is defined solely by one’s physical attractiveness in the eyes of others (B. Fredrickson, T. Roberts). Social networks are considered the ever-growing source of objectification and self-objectification due to the high popularity of sexualized content and the wide spread of selfie posting, which urges girls and women to regard their bodies from the point of view of the outside observer. The paper describes the consequences of self-objectification for mental health. Self-objectification is closely linked to body image disturbances, body shame, guilt, low self-esteem, appearance-related worry and emotional problems. It also has an impact on the emergence and persistence of eating disorders, depression, and suicidal and self-injurious behaviors. Self-objectification is more pronounced in women due to sexualizing beliefs about female bodies that are highly prevalent in modern society. Women start to evaluate their bodies and their attractiveness in the eyes of others early in their lives, and it often happens to the detriment of their own experiences and needs.

1. Pol'skaya N.A., Razvalyaeva A.Yu. Osnovy diagnostiki i profilaktiki samopovrezhdayushchego povedeniya [Fundamentals of diagnosis and prevention of self-damaging behavior] [Elektronnyi resurs]. Moscow: MSUPE, 2022. 220 p. URL: https://psychlib.ru/inc/absid.php?absid=473198 (Accessed 26.07.2023). (In Russ.).
2. Pol'skaya N.A., Yakubovskaya D.K. Idealizatsiya tela v sotsial'nykh media [Idealization of the body in social media]. Psikhologicheskii zhurnal [Journal of Psychology], 2022. Vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 128—141. DOI:10.31857/S020595920018771-4 (In Russ.).
3. Sheehy K., Noureen A., Khaliq A., Dhingrac K., Husaind N., Pontina E.E., Cawleya R., Taylord P.J. An examination of the relationship between shame, guilt and self-harm: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 2019. Vol. 73, article ID 101779, 13 p. DOI:10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101779
4. Bell B.T., Cassarly J.A., Dunbar L. Selfie-objectification: Self-objectification and positive feedback (“likes”) are associated with frequency of posting sexually objectifying self-images on social media. Body Image, 2018. Vol. 26, pp. 83—89. DOI:10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.06.005
5. Orbach I., Stein D., Shani-Sela M., Har-Even D. Body attitudes and body experiences in suicidal adolescents. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 2001. Vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 237—249. DOI:10.1521/suli.31.3.237.24250
6. Black E.B., Garratt M., Beccaria G., Mildred H., Kwan M. Body image as a predictor of nonsuicidal self-injury in women: A longitudinal study. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 2019. Vol. 88, pp. 83—89. DOI:10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.11.010
7. Boursier V., Gioia F. Which are the effects of body-objectification and Instagram-related practices on male body esteem? A cross-sectional study. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 2022. Vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 8—19. DOI:10.36131/cnfioritieditore20220103
8. Butkowski C.P., Dixon T.L., Weeks K. Body surveillance on Instagram: Examining the role of selfie feedback investment in young adult women’s body image concerns. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 2019. Vol. 81, no. 5—6, pp. 385—397. DOI:10.1007/s11199-018-0993-6
9. Calogero R.M. Objectification theory, self-objectification, and body image. In Cash T. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance. Amsterdam: Academic Press, 2012, pp. 574—580.
10. Cohen R., Newton-John T., Slater A. The relationship between Facebook and Instagram appearance-focused activities and body image concerns in young women. Body Image, 2017. Vol. 23, pp. 183—187. DOI:10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.002
11. Davids C.M., Watson L.B., Gere M.P. Objectification, masculinity, and muscularity: A test of objectification theory with heterosexual men. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 2019. Vol. 80. pp. 443—457. DOI:10.1007/s11199-018-0940-6
12. Rosen J.C., Srebnik D., Saltzberg E., Wendt S. Development of a body image avoidance questionnaire. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1991. Vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 32—37. DOI:10.1037/1040-3590.3.1.32
13. Duggan J., Heath N., Hu T. Non-suicidal self-injury maintenance and cessation among adolescents: a one-year longitudinal investigation of the role of objectified body consciousness, depression and emotion dysregulation. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 2015. Vol. 9, article ID 21, 12 p. DOI:10.1186/s13034-015-0052-9
14. Impett E.A., Henson J.M., Breines J.G., Schooler D., Tolman D.L. Embodiment feels better: Girls' body objectification and well-being across adolescence. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2011. Vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 46—58. DOI:10.1177/0361684310391641
15. Erchull M.J., Liss M., Lichiello S. Extending the negative consequences of media internalization and self-objectification to dissociation and self-harm. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 2013. Vol. 69, pp. 583—593. DOI:10.1007/s11199-013-0326-8
16. Feltman C.E., Szymanski D.M. Instagram use and self-objectification: The roles of internalization, comparison, appearance commentary, and feminism // Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 2018. Vol. 78, pp. 311—324. DOI:10.1007/s11199-017-0796-1
17. Fitzsimmons-Craft E.E., Bardone-Cone A.M., Kelly K.A. Objectified body consciousness in relation to recovery from an eating disorder. Eating Behaviors, 2011. Vol. 12(4), pp. 302—308. DOI:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2011.09.001
18. Fredrickson B., Roberts T. Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1997. Vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 173—206. DOI:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
19. Jones B.A., Griffiths K.M. Self-objectification and depression: An integrative systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 2015. Vol. 171, pp. 22—32. DOI:10.1016/j.jad.2014.09.011
20. Jongenelis M.I., Pettigrew S. Body image and eating disturbances in children: The role of self-objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2020. Vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 393—402. DOI:10.1177/0361684320923294
21. Karsay K., Knoll J., Matthes J. Sexualizing media use and self-objectification: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 2018. Vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 9—28. DOI:10.1177/0361684317743019
22. Langton R. Sexual solipsism: Philosophical essays on pornography and objectification. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. 405 p.
23. Milan S., Perez S.D. Body surveillance as a prospective risk factor for depressive symptoms in low-income adolescent girls from the United States. Body image, 2021. Vol. 36, pp. 214—217. DOI:10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.12.001
24. Nelson A., Muehlenkamp J.J. Body attitudes and objectification in non-suicidal self-injury: Comparing males and females. Archives of Suicide Research, 2012. Vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 1—12. DOI:10.1080/13811118.2012.640578
25. Noll S.M., Fredrickson B.L. A mediational model linking self‐objectification, body shame, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1998. Vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 623—636. DOI:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00181.x
26. Nussbaum M.C. Objectification. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1995. Vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 249—291. DOI:10.1111/j.1088-4963.1995.tb00032.x
27. Kahumoku E.P., Vazsonyi A.T., Pagava K., Phagava H., Alsaker F.D., Michaud P.-A. Objectified body consciousness and mental health in female adolescents: cross-cultural evidence from Georgian and Swiss national samples. Journal of Adolescent Health, 2011. Vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 141—147. DOI:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.11.001
28. Lamp S.J., Cugle A., Silverman A.L., Thomas M.T., Liss M., Erchull M.J. Picture perfect: The relationship between selfie behaviors, self-objectification, and depressive symptoms. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 2019. Vol. 81, pp. 704—712. DOI:10.1007/s11199-019-01025-z
29. Ramsey L.R., Horan A.L. Picture this: Women's self-sexualization in photos on social media. Personality and Individual Differences, 2018. Vol. 133, pp. 85—90. DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2017.06.022
30. American Psychological Association. Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. Report of the APA task force on the sexualization of girls [Elektronnyi resurs]. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007. 66 p. URL: http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf (Accessed 24.07.2023).
31. Saunders J.F., Eaton A.A., Aguilar S. From self (ie)-objectification to self-empowerment: The meaning of selfies on social media in eating disorder recovery. Computers in Human Behavior, 2020. Vol. 111, article ID 106420. DOI:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106420
32. Schaefer L.M., Thompson J.K. Self‐objectification and disordered eating: A meta‐analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2018. Vol. 51, no. 6, pp. 483—502. DOI:10.1002/eat.22854
33. Kilpela L.S., Calogero R., Wilfred S.A., Verzijl C.L., Hale W.J., Becker C.B. Self-objectification and eating disorder pathology in an ethnically diverse sample of adult women: cross-sectional and short-term longitudinal associations. Journal of Eating Disorders, 2019. Vol. 7, no. 1, article ID 45, 10 p. DOI:10.1186/s40337-019-0273-z
34. Laifer L.M., Maras O.R., Sáez G., Gervais S.J.,·Brock R.L. Self-objectification during the perinatal period: The role of body surveillance in maternal and infant wellbeing. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 2023. Vol. 88, pp. 459—473. DOI:10.1007/s11199-023-01360-2
35. Schaefer L.M., Burke N.L., Calogero R.M., Menzel J.E., Krawczyk R., Thompson J.K. Self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating: Testing a core mediational model of objectification theory among White, Black, and Hispanic women. Body image, 2018. Vol. 24, pp. 5—12. DOI:10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.005
36. Springmann M.L., Svaldi J., Kiegelmann M. A qualitative study of gendered psychosocial processes in eating disorder development. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2022. Vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 947—955. DOI:10.1002/eat.23734
37. Szymanski D.M. Sexual objectification, internalization, and college women’s depression: The role of shame. The Counseling Psychologist, 2020. Vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 135—156. DOI:10.1177/0011000019878847
38. Fredrickson B.L., Roberts T.A., Noll S.M., Quinn D.M., Twenge J.M. That swimsuit becomes you: sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1998. Vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 269—284. DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.269
39. Karkhanehei M., Ahmadian H., Moradi O., Karimi Q. The casual model of eating disorder based on self-objectification, experiential avoidance, and perfectionism with mediating role of body image concern in the community of overweight women. Quarterly Journal of Women and Society, 2021. Vol. 12, no. 47, pp. 161—176. DOI:10.30495/JZVJ.2021.25676.3329
40. Ward L.M., Daniels E.A., Zurbriggen E.L., Rosenscruggs D. The sources and consequences of sexual objectification. Nature Reviews Psychology, 2023. Vol. 2, pp. 496—513. DOI:10.1038/s44159-023-00192-x
41. Hayes S., Linardon J., Kim C., Mitchison D. Understanding the relationship between sexual harassment and eating disorder psychopathology: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2021. Vol. 54, no. 5, pp. 673—689. DOI:10.1002/eat.23499
42. Wang W., Chen Z., Ding X. Cyberbullying victimization and disordered eating behaviors: the mediating roles of self-compassion and self-objectification. Appetite, 2022. Vol. 178, article ID 106267. DOI:10.1016/j.appet.2022.106267
43. Hielscher E., Whitford T.J., Scott J.G., Zopf R. When the body is the target — Representations of one’s own body and bodily sensations in self-harm: A systematic review? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2019. Vol. 101, pp. 85—112. DOI:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.007
44. Zheng D., Ni X., Luo Y. Selfie posting on social networking sites and female adolescents’ self-objectification: The moderating role of imaginary audience ideation. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 2019. Vol. 80, no. 5—6, pp. 325—331. DOI:10.1007/s11199-018-0937-1