The Development of the Principles of Cultural-Historical Theory in Special Education and Psychology

The article analyzes the importance of research in the field of special education and psychology for the development of cultural-historical theory. In this article we show that the development of the principles of cultural-historical psychology should be analyzed, and problematic areas of special education are identified. We have analyzed an importance of researches on special education and psychology to better understand a correlation between learning and development, the cultural development of a child as "growing into culture", the development of the regulatory function of speech, the content of the category "development" in psychology, the role of the collective in the development of children with disabilities. For the first time in cultural-historical psychology were shown the role of interaction with a peer without disabilities in the development of higher mental functions of a child with disabilities, the importance and conditions of interaction of a special child with an adult for making a step in development, the ratio between disability and its compensation, ideas about the zone of proximal development and the patterns of abnormal development. We showed how L.S.Vygotsky's ideas on the diagnosis of abnormal development in modern special psychology work, and importnt modern studies are for better understanding of normal development. It is shown that many problems of special education (including the problems of inclusive education) pose a challenge to cultural-historical theory and can be solved using it. The article shows prospects for the development of the analyzed problem area.

Introduction

The centenary of cultural-historical psychology encourages to analyze ways of its formation, that is the way to see the prospects of its development. In this article we will trace how most of the key principles of cultural-historical psychology have developed in studies on defectology (special psychology and special education), because it will help to see both growth points and problem areas need for theoretical understanding and practical development in modern realities.

L.S. Vygotsky formulated most of the principles of cultural-historical theory in conducting defectological researches. Based on the materials of these researches L.S. Vygotsky had formulated basic principles of his theory and passed the critical points in the development of scientific worldview. “Theory of unity of learning and development, where learning is given a leading role in the development of child’s psyche; doctrine about the zone of proximal development, up to now in the arming both in defectology, as well as in general psychology and pedagogy; the concept of unity of intelligence and affect in the psyche – that is not a complete list of his contributions both to general psychology and to defectology” [29, p.334] - noted E.S. Beyn, T.A. Vlasova and co-authors. Many foreign authors also emphasize the importance of L.S. Vygotsky’s ideas for special psychology and, conversely, the importance of research in the field of special education for the development of cultural-historical theory [13; 36; 37]. It is necessary to continue this list and briefly trace the development of the key principles of cultural-historical theory in special education and psychology.

First, based on the material of defectological studies L.S. Vygotsky formulated ideas about growth into culture as a way of human development. The research of childhood primitiveness played an important role in the formulation of these representations (L.S. Vygotsky, A.E. Petrova). Their importance in the context of inclusive education is all the greater. The principles of defectological diagnostics formulated by L.S. Vygotsky [5] are developed due to his followers in the framework of special psychology and pedagogy. The problems of special pedagogy put researchers in front of the need to develop ideas about the area of proximal development [16]. The idea of commonality between normative and anomalous patterns has been extended to special psychology, which is particularly important for inclusive education practice.  For cultural-historical theory, the principle of unity of education and development has great importance, which was brought to a qualitatively new level I.A. Sokoliansky, A.I. Meshcheryakov, E. V. Il'enkov in the practice of “initial humanization” of children with complex developmental disorders [25]. Finally, the studies of impaired development confronted the cultural-historical psychology with the problem of adequate understanding of the category of development itself, which is even more relevant in the context of the relationship between it and learning.

The aim of the work is to analyze the development of the most important principles of cultural-historical theory in special psychology and pedagogy after L.S. Vygotsky. 

Tasks:

• to trace the development of principles of cultural-historical theory in special psychology and education;
• to identify problems of special psychology and education, for the solution of which it is necessary to use theoretical-methodological apparatus of cultural-historical psychology.

Method: theoretical analysis of studies in the field of special education and psychology, which are most important for the development of cultural-historical theory.

Results

The relationship between learning and development. The relationship between learning and development is a major issue at the intersection of many scientific fields. To understand the ideas about their relationship, established in cultural-historical theory, starting with L.S. Vygotsky, it is possible on the material of studies in the field of special education. The problem is that in psychology and educational sciences are all too common oversimplifications or deeply misinterpretations of the genetic law of cultural development and the relationship between learning and development. An example could be the following judgment about cultural-historical theory: “A predominantly sociological interpretation of the origin and driving forces of these changes can be called sociogeneticism. It’s based on the idea that human being is a product of society. “Psychology seeks in the history origin of a number of activities” (L.S. Vygotsky)” [34, p. 95].

Theoretical analysis shows that L.S. Vygotsky's approach to the problem of learning and development is fundamentally not reducible to sociogenetism, but this becomes most obvious when analyzing the practice of “initial humanization” in developmental work with deafblind children [25]. The initial mental development of a child in teaching his practical behavior begins with overcoming inert stereotypes and giving to needs the natural direction of development. The adult is facilitating the activity of the child, promotes his initiative in a joint action (for example, in the process of feeding with a spoon). The teacher encourages the smallest manifestations of autonomy and transmits to the child that part of the joint action that he can already perform himself. Thus, the starting point of development is the child’s own need, the driving force is a joint activity with an adult, in which as the child learns the specific actions the joint part decreases. The adult is not a “social factor”, but a partner in joint activities, in which there is “growing into culture” of a special child.

The problem of cultural development. One of the most important theoretical foundations of cultural-historical psychology has become the idea of child development as “growing into culture”.  L.S. Vygotsky formulated these ideas in the material of defectological researches [8]. According to V.I. Lubovsky [21], it is the research in the field of defectology that has caused the need to set several theoretical and practical problems directly arising from this principle as well as their solutions. He considers these problems are the need for elaborating methodological foundations of diagnosis of development, and detection in the diagnostics not only the level of actual opportunities, but also the zone of proximal development, and clarification of the presentation on ways to compensate for violations in special training. “From the viewpoint of cultural-historical psychology main task of psychological diagnostics especially diagnostics of mental development is to identify the presence and level of formation in the child of those psychological mechanisms, which full functioning ensures the process of mastering of the culture” [21, p.5].

Emphasizing the significant role of A.R. Luria and the scientific team he created on the base of Institute of Defectology, V.I. Lubovsky showed the importance of neuropsychological approaches in the care of child developmental disorders. It is not possible not to mention the importance of activity approach, which emerged within the framework of special psychology and education, for further development of cultural-historical psychology. V. I. Lubovsky [21] also emphasized the importance of R.E. Levina’s works on the speech therapy [21] for the development of problems of relationship between thinking and speech, presented by L.S. Vygotsky in a monograph of the same name. Research of verbal regulation of actions was very important for solving the problems posed by L.S. Vygotsky in “Thinking and speech”: “We observed how the word expressing the result of an action was inextricably intertwined with this action, and precisely because it captured and reflected the most important structural moments of a practical intellectual operation, it began to illuminate and direct the child's action, subordinating him to intention and plan, raising him to the stage of expedient activity” [9, c. 46]. In the studies of verbal regulation of actions in children with intellectual disabilities, this L.S. Vygotsky’s assumption was clarified and revealed a sequence of development of the regulatory function of the word (the word as motivation, as reinforcement, as a means of action planning) [20].

The studies by S.A. Zykov (development of speech of deaf children in the process of practical activity), by Y.A. Kulagin (mechanisms for compensation of sensory deficits in blind schoolchildren), by G.M. Dulnev (development of mentally retarded students in the process of labor education) were very important for developing ideas on compensation of disorders in activities. Indeed, “...the position of L.S. Vygotsky remains relevant that pedagogical practice in the field of education of children with developmental disabilities has a main task of creating bypass paths in development» [21, p. 6]. New aspect of the problem of cultural development is highlighted by O.I. Kukushkina, E.L. Goncharova and N.N. Malofeev - the relationship between academic and life competences [18]. Thus, there are many problems of special psychology and education that have an applied nature but require solutions to fundamental theoretical problems that have their roots in cultural-historical theory.

Solving new problems based on cultural-historical psychology. In recent decades, the technologies of prosthetics deficit functions, especially hearing, have been developing intensively. Improvement of hearing aid design and cochlear implant technology. The situation arises when technical progress is outrunning the development of special education and psychology, which are not able to comprehend and assimilate the possibilities of rehabilitation work arising from new techniques of prosthesis of impaired function. In this context, the range of applied studies on rehabilitation work after cochlear implantation is expanding [19]. The task arises of developing structural models of recoverable functions, which solution based on the principles of cultural-historical psychology. Rehabilitation work practices are emerging, which should be based on updated data from cultural-historical developmental psychology. For example, the practice of 3P rehabilitation of a child with a cochlear implant and his family, proposed by E.L. Goncharova and O.I. Kukushkina [10], is based, among other things, on living on a new sensory basis the stages of early ontogenesis lived by a child in a family in conditions of deafness, as well as on the restructuring of the child's emotional interaction with the family on a new sensory basis. These principles pose a number of questions to the cultural-historical psychology of development: 1) how early ontogeny stages can be experienced on a new sensory basis, while they have already been experienced on another basis, and the sensitive period of formation of neoplasms of these ages has already passed; 2) what is the restructuring of the emotional interaction of the child with his family, if it is necessary to change the entire system of symbolic mediation of this interaction? Thus, the necessity of solving a practical problem forces the theory to make a step in its development.

New aspects of the development of inclusive education practices are emerging in the area under analysis.  V.V. Rubtsov and co-authors showed that many of them are related to the development of an inclusive higher education system [30].  These include the issue of accessibility of the information environment for students with disabilities. The authors of numerous guides on inclusive education have pointed to the need to address this issue [3; 12; 27]. The principles of educational content design accessible for students with sensory impairments have been developed. In recent years, the object of work is not only information accessibility; adaptive disciplines are developed, what give students the opportunity to make their own limitations (such as sensory) and associated difficulties in educational activities an object of transformation. The psychological well-being of students with disabilities is a relatively new aspect in this problem area [33]. Solving the problem of accessibility of educational content and development of adaptive disciplines, ensuring “ingrowth” of special students in the educational environment of the university, are also possible based on cultural-historical theory and active approach.

The category “development” and special education researches. One of the most important problems of cultural-historical theory is the content of the “development” category.  N.N. Nechaev [26] rightly argues that is necessary a meaningful analysis of the “Development” category in psychology and the identification of what L.S. Vygotsky called false ideas of development. These include the widespread belief that development is only a positive process.  N.N. Nechaev draws attention to the letter of L.S. Vygotsky addressed to R.E. Levina, where he considers development as a true drama: “Crises are not temporary states, but the way of internal life. When we go from systems to fates (say scary and funny this word, knowing that tomorrow we will investigate what is behind it), to the birth and death of systems, we will see it firsthand” [4, p. 127]. It is correct to say that he came to such conclusions when analyzing the cases of children and adolescents with disabilities, where dysfunctional mechanisms of compensation for primary violations are formed: “Drowns and does not want to sink: wildly beaten, grasps for a straw. Tragic spectacle. Forced, convulsive development of a number of functions” [14, p. 242]. The idea of development as a drama was formed by Vygotsky largely on the basis of observation of children with disabilities.

Being in a group and development of children with disabilities. Defectological studies trick L.S. Vygotsky into the need to analyze the role of the group (“collective”) in the development of disabled children. This problem is not only relevant for special education and psychology, but for all education sciences. In the article “Collective” as a factor of development of defective child [6] he had shown that children with developmental disorders have a much greater importance of the inter-mental functions for the formation of the intrapsychic, and the development patterns become more noticeable. The conclusion that the group is a factor of development of higher mental functions, while the violation of development is a factor of underdevelopment of elementary functions. Conclusions about the developmental potential of groups that include children with different levels of intellectual disability are of great importance for inclusive education. L.S. Vygotsky outlines the activity approach in special education, when he states that group activity of hearing children together with non-hearing is for the latter a crucial factor in the development of communication.

Meanwhile, in the draft notes to this article L.S. Vygotsky states that the group can be a factor of underdevelopment: “Orphan homes from early childhood. [Development] is delayed. Groups - minus. Nursery all equal. There is no magic power of the group” [14, p. 201]. This direction, started in defectological theory by L.S. Vygotsky, in modern cultural-historical psychology goes by several ways. First of all, it is necessary to name studies on the inclusion in the group of children with disabilities in inclusive education: formation of social competence of special children in an inclusive class [2], development of models for their inclusion in school groups [11].

The most important and significant area for the cultural-historical sciences of education is the study of joint educational activities of children with disabilities and with normotypic development. Thus, the study of A.V. Konokotin [17], devoted to the inclusion of children with special educational needs in the joint solution of educational tasks, convincingly showed that the development of relationships in the course of solving educational tasks and the transition from focusing on the objective properties of the task to the analysis of the models of interaction themselves contributes to the development of higher mental functions.

Interaction of an adult and children with disabilities. Another important direction in the development of this problem area is the study of the interaction of an adult and a child with disabilities, which helps to overcome educational difficulties. The work of V.K. Zaretsky is noteworthy, who proposed a reflexive-activity approach to overcome educational difficulties, including for children with disabilities [15; 16]. It has been shown that the joint solution of educational tasks is provided that the positions of an adult and a child are equal, when the adult acts as a consultant, encouraging the child to analyze the grounds for his actions (i.e. contributing to the development of reflection in educational activities), not only contributes to the emergence of a subjective position in teaching, but is a condition that makes it possible to implement the principle formulated by L.S. Vygotsky: “One step in learning is one hundred steps in development” [15]. It should be noted that this direction is a direct continuation of L.S. Vygotsky's scientific research in the last months of his life, when his attention was directed to semantic dynamics and its violations [7]. Proposed in the works of V.K. The Zaretsky reflexive-activity approach is a method that allows overcoming, among other things, violations of semantic dynamics through the formation of reflection.

The problem of disabilities and their compensation. The ratio of the disabilities and its compensation is essential for understanding normal development. This problem was posed in the works of L.S. Vygotsky, but nowadays new aspects of its connection with the education of adults with disabilities in higher education are visible [30]. For special students, higher education acts not only as a way to “grow into culture” (in this case, professional culture), but also as a way to compensate for violations. At the same time, many students with disabilities develop dysfunctional psychological mechanisms that compensate for learning difficulties. Their research, based on the principles of cultural and historical psychology, is of great importance for the design of psychological and pedagogical support for all students, not only with disabilities.

Ideas about the zone of immediate development. The multi-vector model of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), proposed by V.K. Zaretsky to track the development of a child in many directions in joint work with an adult to overcome educational difficulties, is also of great importance for cultural and historical psychology [16].  Previous models of ZPD were less successful and did not make it possible to trace the development of a child in an almost infinite number of directions. The ZPD model proposed by V.K. Zaretsky, represents a significant step forward in understanding the development of a child in interaction with an adult.

Conceptualizations about the abnormal development. L.S. Vygotsky's conclusions about the commonality of patterns of normotypic and impaired development were very important for cultural-historical psychology. For the first time this community was noted by G.Ya. Troshin [32], then this position was developed by L.S. Vygotsky [7]. An important role in the study of the patterns of impaired development was played by the works of T.A. Vlasova, L.V. Zankov, I.M. Solovyov, J.I. Shif. Large-scale comparative studies of the psychological characteristics of children with various types of developmental disorders were conducted by A.R. Luria and his colleagues at the Institute of Defectology of the Academy of Educational Sciences of the Russian Soviet Republic since the early 1950s. The theoretical principles formulated on the basis of these studies are of great importance for cultural and historical psychology in general.  In 1971, V.I. Lubovsky's article General and specific patterns of the development of the psyche of abnormal children was first published [24], which shows the commonality of the characteristics of development in various variants of disorders. The concept of general and specific patterns of development is a logical continuation of the line of development of special psychology and pedagogy, begun by G.Ya. Troshin and L.S. Vygotsky [31]. It should be noted that this concept is very important for the practice of inclusive education.

Problems of diagnosis of developmental disorders. Many problems of the diagnostics of children  disabilities’ and ways to solve them were shown by L.S. Vygotsky in the work Diagnostics of development and the pedological clinic of difficult childhood [5]. The most important role in the subsequent development of this area was played by his ideas that 1) diagnosis should be aimed at identifying the structural aspect of symptom complexes and 2) diagnosis should contain a prognosis. A continuation of the cultural-historical approach in this area was the idea of the focus of diagnostics on assessing the level of development and preservation of psychological systems that ensure “growing into culture” [22]. T.G. Bogdanova and N.M. Nazarova emphasize that “for special psychology at the present stage of its development, according to V.I. Lubovsky, it is necessary to move from the diagnosis of selection to the diagnosis of specific features of mental development, the desire to find optimal conditions for compensating for various variants of impaired development, expanding the capabilities of the individual, creating various educational and nurturing environments that make it possible to build a developing lifestyle” [1, p. 85]. Social intelligence assessment and monitoring of social skills of children with developmental disabilities can be considered examples of diagnostics aimed at building a developing lifestyle [35].

The principles formulated by L.S. Vygotsky became the basis for the development of a new concept of psychological diagnostics of developmental disorders [22], where the structure of the disorder is understood as some invariant, “... something that remains constant. It is precisely this that is the “keeper of the originality” of each type of impaired development” [22, p. 151]. This invariant has a stable combination of parameters for all types of this kind of disabilities. For example, according to G.R. Novikova [cit. by: 23], the profile of indicators of children with mental retardation’ intellectual activity, belonging to different clinical groups, is almost the same. Studies have also shown that “a function with low indicators, despite a significant individual variation, in all representatives of this type of impaired development will be lower than a function with higher indicators” [22, p. 55]. The system-profile principle of developmental diagnostics is important not only for the study of children with disabilities, since in normotypic development there is a significant variation in indicators of higher psychological functions, which is important when analyzing the difficulties of “growing into culture” of children without disabilities. The importance of developing ideas about the psychological structure of the disorder for the practice of psychological assistance to children with developmental disabilities is shown by A.M. Polyakov [28], but the ideas he proposed about the subjective and objective type of response, as well as the dysfunctional and evolutionary cycle, are also applicable in the practice of helping conditionally healthy children and adolescents.

The development of the principles first proposed by L. S. Vygotsky can be traced in the ideas about the structure of developmental disorders formulated by V.I. Lubovsky [23]. He emphasized two meanings of the term “structure of the disorder”: “1) a holistic view of the development parameters and the connections between them in a child or adolescent with disabilities based on sufficient experience, on the basis of which the case can be considered as typical for a particular variant of abnormal development; 2) designation of the specifics of a particular type of impaired development” [23, p. 147]. The data presented in the work on the structure of the disorder show that the ratio between the parameters of the development of higher psychological functions changes during the transition of children to a new age stage. Knowing about the changes in these ratios makes it possible to make, in the words of L.S. Vygotsky, a diagnosis that contains a prognosis. These data are extremely important for the study of changes occurring in the process of age-related development, and not only in children and adolescents with disabilities.

Discussion

Our analysis shows that special education and psychology have made and continue to make a huge contribution to the development of cultural and historical psychology. The interaction of the theory created by L.S. Vygotsky and the practice of special education is a mutually enriching cooperation. Using many examples, we have seen that the application of the theoretical and methodological apparatus of cultural-historical psychology to solve urgent problems of special education contributes to its progressive development. Special psychology and education pose problems to cultural-historical theory, which become a challenge for it and, thereby, an incentive for development, which is the prospect of development of the analyzed scientific field.

Conclusions

The analysis of works on special education and psychology shows that many problems are posed in this scientific field, solving them helps to the develop cultural-historical theory. It has been shown that the theory and practice of special education provides an opportunity for an accurate understanding of the fundamental principles of cultural-historical theory, including the genetic law of cultural development, and the idea of cultural development as “growing into culture”. The education and upbringing of children with disabilities requires and, at the same time, provides material for a theoretical study of the category of development, as well as clarification of the theoretical schemes proposed by L.S. Vygotsky in Thinking and Speech (for example, ideas about the stages of development of actions’ verbal regulation).

The implementation of activity principles in special education enriches the activity approach in general education. Thus, the development of problems of the entry of a child or adult with disabilities into a team as a condition for “growing into culture” contributes to the development of cultural and historical psychology and an activity approach. Research in the field of psychodiagnostics of impaired development is of great importance to them. Ideas about its focus on assessing the preservation and formation of mechanisms of “growing into culture” are important for the theory and practice of special education. Our research has shown that modern ideas about the zone of proximal development, which have significantly advanced this area of cultural-historical theory, are formed, among other things, on the basis of special pedagogy.

The heritage of cultural-historical psychology has become developments in the field of special psychology and pedagogy, which at first glance have a highly specialized significance, but in fact are significant for the entire system of educational sciences. Thus, the concept of general and specific patterns of abnormal development is significant for the theory and practice of inclusive education. In special pedagogy, new approaches are emerging that are of great importance for cultural, historical and activity psychology (reflexive activity approach, 3P rehabilitation). It is important to develop ideas about the structure of developmental disorders, because, as it has been shown, data on the ratio of functions during the transition to a new age stage are important for studying changes in normotypic development.

A number of problems of special psychology and pedagogy have been identified, which require a theoretical and methodological apparatus of cultural and historical psychology to solve. These include new aspects of the problem of “growing into culture” (information accessibility, the creation of adaptive educational content to form students' means of mastering learning difficulties). The creation of an educational environment for students with disabilities should be based on the principles of cultural, historical and activity psychology, for example, the design of educational situations for the joint solution of educational tasks, in solving which it becomes possible that a child, having taken one step in learning, would have gone a hundred steps in his development. The situation in which technological progress overtakes special pedagogy and psychology requires the use of not only modern mathematical modeling and data analysis tools, but also the methodological apparatus of cultural and historical psychology. Solving these problems using the possibilities of cultural and historical theory contributes to progress in the development of not only it, but also the sciences of education in general.

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