Parental Stress Scale: Adaptation on the Russian-Speaking Sample of Schoolchildren’s Mothers

Objective. Adaptation of the Parental Stress Scale by J. Berry and V. Jones on a sample of mothers of Russian schoolchildren – first and fourth grade students of elementary schools in Nizhny Novgorod and the Nizhny Novgorod region.
Background. Modern parenting research highlights the complex nature of parenting experiences, the diversity of parental practices, the changes associated with the child's upbringing and the dynamics of the family system, and the combination of both positive and negative emotions in parenting. However, there is a noticeable shortage of tools in the Russian-language literature to measure both parental satisfaction and parental stress.
Study design. The study was conducted using an online survey within the “Longitudinal study of factors of school failure”, implemented in Nizhny Novgorod and the Nizhny Novgorod region. Participants. The study included a sample of 900 mothers of fourth grade and 1120 mothers of the first grade school students. Measurements. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and McDonald's Omega coefficients were used for psychometric data analysis. The PERMA Profiler questionnaire and correlation analysis were used to assess validity based on convergent and discriminant evidence. The data was analyzed in the Jamovi 2022 and R programs.
Results. Factor analyses of the internal structure suggest two factors, including 8 items each. The subscales “Parental stress” and “Parental satisfaction” demonstrate a high level of internal consistency. The assessment of validity based on the convergent and discriminant evidence confirms the reliability and validity of the instrument.
Conclusions. The scale demonstrates good psychometric properties and can be used for parenting research, as well as in applied projects to improve parental competence and emotional support for parents.

1. Bukhalenkova D.A., Nechaeva D.M. Psikhicheskoe razvitie detei doshkol'nogo i mladshego shkol'nogo vozrasta vo vremya pandemii COVID-19 [Mental development of preschool and primary school children during the COVID-19 pandemic] [Elektronnyi resurs]. Sovremennaia zarubezhnaia psikhologiia = Journal of Modern Foreign Psychology, 2022, Vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 81–92. DOI:10.17759/jmfp.2022110207 (In Russ.).
2. Vasilenko V.E., Savenysheva S.S., Zapletina O.O. Roditel'skii i povsednevnyi stress u materei detei rannego i doshkol'nogo vozrasta [Parenting Stress and Daily Hassles in Mothers of Young and Preschool Children]. Konsul'tativnaya psikhologiya i psikhoterapiya = Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy, 2021. Vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 27–48. DOI:10.17759/cpp.2021290403 (In Russ.).
3. Efimova I.N. Lichnostnye kharakteristiki i osobennosti emotsional'nykh i povedencheskikh proyavlenii roditelei v svyazi so stepen'yu ikh emotsional'nogo vygoraniya [Personal Characteristics and Features of Emotional and Behavioral Manifestations of Parents in Relation to their Degree of Burnout]. Rossiiskii nauchnyi zhurnal = Russian Scientific Journal, 2013, Vol. 4, no. 35, pp. 206–215. (In Russ.).
4. Isaeva O.M., Akimova A.Yu., Volkova E.N. Oprosnik blagopoluchiya PERMA-Profiler: aprobatsiya russkoyazychnoi versii [PERMA-Profiler: the Approbation of the Russian Version]. Sotsial'naya psikhologiya i obshchestvo = Social Psychology and Society, 2022. Vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 116–133. DOI:10.17759/sps.2022130308 (In Russ.).
5. Kim K.A., Kadyrov R.V. Roditel'skii stress i vospitanie rebenka s detskim tserebral'nym paralichom: obzor zarubezhnykh issledovanii [Elektronnyi resurs] [Parental Stress and Bringing up a Child with Cerebral Palsy: A Foreign Studies Review]. Klinicheskaya i spetsial'naya psikhologiya = Clinical Psychology and Special Education, 2022. Vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 1–29. DOI:10.17759/cpse.2022110401 (In Russ.).
6. Longityudnoe issledovanie faktorov, vliyayushchikh na shkol'nuyu neuspeshnost' [Longitudinal Study of School Failure Factors] [Elektronnyi resurs]. URL: https://ioe.hse.ru/failure-factors/ (Accessed 14.03.2024). (In Russ.).
7. Misiyuk Yu.V., Khazova S.A. Issledovanie vyrazhennosti ustanovok na intensivnoe roditel'stvo u rossiiskikh zhenshchin [Study of the expression of attitudes on intensive parenting in Russian women]. Vestnik Kostromskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Ser.: Pedagogika. Psikhologiya. Sotsiokinetika = Vestnik of Kostroma State University. Series: Pedagogy. Psychology. Sociokinetics, 2021. Vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 91–98. DOI:10.34216/2073-1426-2021-27-3-91-98 (In Russ.).
8. Starchenkova E.S. Sotsial'no-psikhologicheskie faktory roditel'skogo vygoraniya [Social-Psuchological Factors of Parental Burnout]. In M.V. Saporovskaya, T.L. Kryukova, S.A. Khazova (Eds.). Psikhologiya stressa i sovladayushchego povedeniya: vyzovy, resursy, blagopoluchie: materialy V Mezhdunarodnoi nauchnoi konferentsii: v 2 t. T. 2. [Psychology of Stress and Coping Behaviour: Challenges, Resources, Well-being: Proceedings of the V International Scientific Conference: in 2 vol. Vol. 2]. Kostroma: Kostromа State University, 2019, pp. 109–113. (In Russ.).
9. Tikhonova I.V. Roditel'skie sostoyaniya, svyazannye so stressom: ponyatiinyi diskurs i differentsiatsiya [Parental States Associated with Stress: Conceptual Discourse and Differentiation]. Vestnik Kostromskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta. Seriya: Pedagogika. Psikhologiya. Sotsiokinetika = Vestnik of Kostroma State University. Series: Pedagogy. Psychology. Sociokinetics, 2022. Vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 84–92. DOI:10.34216/2073-1426-2022-28-2-84-92 (In Russ.).
10. Abidin R.R., Smith L.T., Kim H. Parenting stress. WikiJournal of Medicine, 2022. Vol. 9, no. 1, p. 3. DOI:10.15347/WJM/2022.003
11. Abidin R.R., Wilfong E. Parenting Stress and Its Relationship to Child Health Care. Children’s Health Care, 1989. Vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 114–116. DOI:10.1207/s15326888chc1802_9
12. Abidin R.R. Parenting Stress and the Utilization of Pediatric Services. Children’s Health Care, 1982. Vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 70–73. DOI:10.1207/s15326888chc1102_5
13. Algarvio S., Leal I., Maroco J. Parental Stress Scale: Validation study with a Portuguese population of parents of children from 3 to 10 years old. Journal of Child Health Care, 2018. Vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 563–576. DOI:10.1177/1367493518764337
14. Aunola K., Sorkkila M., Tolvanen A. Validity of the Finnish version of the Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA). Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2020. Vol. 61, no. 5, pp. 714–722. DOI:10.1111/sjop.12654
15. Barbot B., Crossman E., Hunter S.R., Grigorenko E.L., Luthar S.S. Reciprocal influences between maternal parenting and child adjustment in a high-risk population: A 5-year cross-lagged analysis of bidirectional effects. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 2014. Vol. 84, no. 5, pp. 567–580. DOI:10.1037/ort0000012
16. Barroso N.E., Mendez L., Graziano P.A., Bagner D.M. Parenting Stress through the Lens of Different Clinical Groups: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2018. Vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 449–461. DOI:10.1007/s10802-017-0313-6
17. Berry J.O., Jones W.H. The Parental Stress Scale: Initial Psychometric Evidence. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 1995. Vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 463–472.
18. Butler J., Kern M.L. The PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of flourishing. International Journal of Wellbeing, 2016. Vol. 6, no. 3, Art. 3. DOI:10.5502/ijw.v6i3.526
19. 19. Crnic K., Greenberg M.T. Minor parenting stresses with young children. Child Development, Vol. 61, pp. 1628–1637. DOI:10.2307/1130770
20. Crnic K., Ross E. Parenting stress and parental efficacy. Parental Stress and Early Child Development. Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 263–284. DOI:10.1007/978-3-319-55376-4_11
21. Deater-Deckard K. Parenting stress and child adjustment: Some old hypotheses and new questions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 1998. Vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 314–332. DOI:10.1111/j.1468-2850.1998.tb00152.x
22. Deater-Deckard K., Scarr S. Parenting stress among dual-earner mothers and fathers: Are there gender differences? Journal of Family Psychology, 1996. Vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 45–59. DOI:10.1037/0893-3200.10.1.45
23. Delvecchio E., Sciandra A., Finos L., Mazzeschi C., Riso D.D. The role of co-parenting alliance as a mediator between trait anxiety, family system maladjustment, and parenting stress in a sample of non-clinical Italian parents. Frontiers in Psychology, 2015. Vol. 6. DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01177
24. Deng L., Chan W. Testing the Difference Between Reliability Coefficients Alpha and Omega. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 2017. Vol. 77, no. 2, pp. 185–203. DOI:10.1177/0013164416658325
25. Dziuban C.D., Shirkey E.C. When is a correlation matrix appropriate for factor analysis? Some decision rules. Psychological Bulletin, 1974. Vol. 81, no. 6, pp. 358–361. DOI:10.1037/h0036316
26. Fallahchai R., Fallahi M. Parental stress and dyadic adjustment among parents of children with ASD: Moderating effects of dyadic coping and perceived social support. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 2022. Vol. 123, Art. 104192. DOI:10.1016/j.ridd.2022.104192
27. Fletcher T. Package “psychometric” [R package]. 2022. Available at: https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/psychometric/psychometric.pdf (Accessed 10.03.2023).
28. Geprägs A., Bürgin D., Fegert J.M., Brähler E., Clemens V. Parental stress and physical violence against children during the second year of the COVID-19 pandemic: results of a population-based survey in Germany. Child Adolescent Psychiatry Mental Health, 2023. Vol. 17, Art. 25. DOI:10.1186/s13034-023-00571-5
29. Gil-Rivas V., Kilmer R.P., Larson J.C., Armstrong L.M. Facilitating successful reintegration: Attending to the needs of military families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 2017. Vol. 87, no. 2, pp. 176–184. DOI:10.1037/ort0000201
30. Habibpour S., Afrooz G.A., ShokohiYekta M., Farzad V.A., Besharat M., Nakhshab M. Validation of Parenting Stress Scale for Mothers of Premature Infants in Iran. Journal of Mazandaran University Medical Sciences, 2018. Vol. 28, no. 162, pp. 115–127. Available at: http://jmums.mazums.ac.ir/article-1-10834-en.html (Accessed 2.03.2023).
31. Hayes S.A., Watson S.L. The Impact of Parenting Stress: A Meta-analysis of Studies Comparing the Experience of Parenting Stress in Parents of Children with and without Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Development Disorders, 2013. Vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 629–642. DOI:10.1007/s10803-012-1604-y
32. Holly L.E., Fenley A.R., Kritikos T.K., Merson R.A., Abidin R.R., Langer D.A. Evidence-Base Update for Parenting Stress Measures in Clinical Samples. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 2019. Vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 685–705. DOI:10.1080/15374416.2019.1639515
33. Jackson A.P., Choi J.K., Preston K.S. Harsh parenting and Black boys' behavior problems: single mothers' parenting stress and nonresident fathers' involvement. Family Relations, 2019. Vol. 68, no. 4, pp. 436–449. DOI:10.1111/fare.12373
34. Kumalasari D., Gani I.A.A., Fourianalistyawati E. Adaptation and psychometric properties of the Indonesian version of Parental Stress Scale. Indonesian Journal of Indigenous Psychology, 2022. Vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 332–353. DOI:10.24854/jpu527
35. Lam W., Li S.-F., Yi Y.-Z., Ho K.Y., Lam K.K.W., Leung D.Y.P., Chan K.Y.Y., Ho J.M.C., Chan S.C.W., Wang H.-X., Zhou L., Yin Y., Wong F.K.Y. Symptom Burden of Children with Cancer and Parental Quality of Life: The Mediating Role of Parental Stress. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2022. Vol. 19, no. 16, Art. 9840. DOI:10.3390/ijerph19169840
36. Lazarus R.S. Stress and emotion: A new synthesis. Springer, 2006. 360 р.
37. Lee M.Y., Wang X., Liu C., Raheim S., Tebb S. Outcome literature review of integrative body–mind–spirit practices for mental health conditions. Social Work Research, 2018. Vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 251–266. DOI:10.1093/swr/svy018
38. Lo C.K.M., Chen M., Chen Q., Chan K.L., Ip P. Social, Community, and Cultural Factors Associated with Parental Stress in Fathers and Mothers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2023. Vol. 20, no. 2, Art. 1128. DOI:10.3390/ijerph20021128
39. Louie A.D., Cromer L.D., Berry J.O. Assessing Parenting Stress: Review of the Use and Interpretation of the Parental Stress Scale. The Family Journal, 2017. Vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 359–367. DOI:10.1177/1066480717731347
40. Mackler J.S., Kelleher R.T., Shanahan L., Calkins S.D., Keane S.P., O’Brien M. Parenting Stress, Parental Reactions, and Externalizing Behavior from Ages 4 to 10. Journal of Marriage and Family, 2015. Vol. 77, no. 2, pp. 388–406. DOI:10.1111/jomf.12163
41. Maguire K. The SAGE Handbook of Family Communication. The SAGE Handbook of Family Communication. SAGE Publications, Inc., 2015, рр. 154–168. DOI:10.4135/9781483375366
42. Mikolajczak M., Gross J.J., Roskam I. Parental Burnout: What Is It, and Why Does It Matter? Clinical Psychological Science, 2019. Vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 1319–1329. DOI:10.1177/2167702619858430
43. Mikolajczak M., Raes M.-E., Roskam I. Exhausted parents: Sociodemographic, child- related, parent-related, parenting and family-functioning correlates of parental burnout. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 2018. Vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 602–614. DOI:10.1007/s10826-017-0892-4
44. Miranda A., Mira A., Berenguer C., Rosello B., Baixauli I. Parenting Stress in Mothers of Children with Autism Without Intellectual Disability. Mediation of Behavioral Problems and Coping Strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 2019. Vol. 10. DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00464
45. Nærde A., Sommer Hukkelberg S. An examination of validity and reliability of the Parental Stress Scale in a population based sample of Norwegian parents. PLoS ONE, 2020. Vol. 15, no. 12, Art. e0242735. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0242735
46. Nair P., Schuler M.E., Black M.M., Kettinger L., Harrington D. Cumulative environmental risk in substance abusing women: Early intervention, parenting stress, child abuse potential and child development. Child Abuse & Neglect, 2003. Vol. 27, no. 9, pp. 997–1017. DOI:10.1016/s0145-2134(03)00161-3
47. Nowakowski-Sims E. Integrative Body, Mind, and Spirit Interventions used with Parents in the Child Welfare System. Journal of Child Adolescent Trauma, 2021. Vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 121–129. DOI:10.1007/s40653-021-00388-4
48. Øygarden A.-M.U., Berg R.C., Abudayya A., Glavin K., Strøm B.S. Measurement instruments for parental stress in the postpartum period: A scoping review. PLoS ONE, 2022. Vol. 17, no. 3, Art. e0265616. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0265616
49. Park S.Y., Kim J.H., Jeong M.Y., Lee Y.S., Shin J.E., Lee Y.J. Reliability and Validity of the Korean Version of the Parental Stress Scale for Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatry Investigation, 2021. Vol. 18, no. 12, pp. 1188–1197.
50. Pontoppidan M., Nielsen T., Kristensen I.H. Psychometric properties of the Danish Parental Stress Scale: Rasch analysis in a sample of mothers with infants. PLoS ONE, 2018. Vol. 13, no. 11, Art. e0205662. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0205662
51. Revelle W. et al. Package “psych” [R package], 2022. Available at: https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/psych/psych.pdf (Accessed 10.03.2023).
52. Rivas G.R., Arruabarrena I., Paúl J.de. Parenting Stress Index-Short Form: Psychometric properties of the Spanish version in mothers of children aged 0 to 8 years. Psychosocial Intervention, 2021. Vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 27–34. DOI:10.5093/pi2020a14
53. Rodriguez C.M. Personal contextual characteristics and cognitions: Predicting child abuse potential and disciplinary style. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2010. Vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 315–335. DOI:10.1177/0886260509334391
54. Rosseel Y. et al. Package “lavaan” [R package], 2023. Available at: https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/lavaan/lavaan.pdf (Accessed 11.03.2023).
55. Selye H. The stress of life (Rev. ed). McGraw-Hill, 1978.
56. Senn M., Stadelmann C., Forster F., Nussbeck F.W., Bodenmann G. Parental stress mediates the effects of parental risk factors on dysfunctional parenting in first-time parents: A dyadic longitudinal study. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 2023. Vol. 40, no. 12, pp. 4335–4358. DOI:10.1177/02654075231165340
57. Steele H., Bate J., Steel M., Dube S.R., Danskin K., Knafo H., Nikitiades A., Bonuck K., Meissner P., Murphy A. Adverse childhood experiences, poverty, and parenting stress. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 2016. Vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 32–38. DOI:10.1037/cbs0000034
58. Stone L.L., Mares S.H.W., Otten R., Engels R.C.M.E., Janssens J.M.A.M. The Co-Development of Parenting Stress and Childhood Internalizing and Externalizing Problems. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 2016. Vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 76–86. DOI:10.1007/s10862-015-9500-3
59. Theule J., Wiener J., Tannock R., Jenkins J.M. Parenting Stress in Families of Children With ADHD: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 2013. Vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 3–17. DOI:10.1177/1063426610387433
60. Thomason E., Volling B.L., Flynn H.A., McDonough S.C., Marcus S.M., Lopez J.F., Vazquez D.M. Parenting stress and depressive symptoms in postpartum mothers: Bidirectional or unidirectional effects? Infant Behavior and Development, 2014. Vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 406–415. DOI:10.1016/j.infbeh.2014.05.009
61. van Buuren S. et al. Package “mice” [R package], 2023. Available at: https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/mice/mice.pdf (Accessed 11.03.2023).
62. van Steijn D.J., Oerlemans A.M., van Aken M.A.G., Buitelaar J.K., Rommelse N.N.J. The Reciprocal Relationship of ASD, ADHD, Depressive Symptoms and Stress in Parents of Children with ASD and/or ADHD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 2014. Vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 1064–1076. DOI:10.1007/s10803-013-1958-9
63. Webster-Stratton C. Stress: A potential disruptor of parent perceptions and family interactions. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 1990. Vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 302–312. DOI:10.1207/s15374424jccp1904_2