Overcoming the Semantic Barrier and Developing the Ability to Use Communicative Tools. Part II. Psychotechnique

This article describes the psychotechnique of mediating (real-life, communicative) action in working with difficult children. We outline the stages and corresponding environments leading to turning points in the formation of consciousness[1] (mental model) of a child with ASD. It’s defined by restructuring interfunctional relations in the process of mediation and developing conceptual reflective interfunctional thinking (not only reflective functional thinking). The psychotechnique can be used in practice, both in work with difficult children and in general education in order to prevent the motivational disorders and to raise the age boundary by restructuring the performance of yet unformed function).

The proof comes nearer, nearer,

What man praises in deepest Nature,

Through Reason we dare to probe it,

And what she organizes, here,

We’re now able to crystallize it.

Faust, by Goethe 

The development of practical psychotechniques, as fol­lows from Part I of this study, is both historically and methodologically well-grounded, meeting the demand of our time, namely the need to enhance work with chil­dren with an appropriate method that forms the child’s subjectivity. After all, attempts to copy foreign methods have not solved this problem whatsoever. While they are reminiscent of the situation described earlier by L.S. Vy­gotsky [10, p. 78]: “annexation — the mechanical transfer of one system’s pieces into another — in this instance, as always, seems almost miraculous and testifies to the truth…,” that is not quite the case. Replication of foreign methods and their introduction into educational prac­tice has exposed the crisis in psychology that L.S. Vy­gotsky predicted as early as in 1927 [14]. And the issue here is “not the lack of material, which is abundantly collected, and not the lack of philosophical and method­ological principles, which are abundant as well, but the fact that practitioners find it impossible to comprehend the entire spectrum of this variability and to treat the replicated practices critically and compare these data with methodological psychology.” “There is not a single science where theory and practice have followed such different paths (L. Binswanger, 1922, p. 6)” [10, p. 125].

The system of teaching children with ASD, despite the efforts expended, still does not meet the performance goals set by the Russian state standards in terms of cre­ating conditions for the formation of personal and meta-disciplinary results. The reason is that the spontaneously formed “modern scientific evidence-based practices”3 are far removed from the actual development of the child’s subjectivity and do not allow the child to achieve what they are truly capable of through the construction of al­ternative development paths [8, p. 105]. Development of psychotechniques for mediating (real-life, communi­cative) action becomes “the defining point of the circle” and “the main driving force of the crisis in its last phase” [10, p. 138], if we are to recall another idea expressed by L.S. Vygotsky: “the path of development,” in this case education for children with ASD, “is not always straight, but takes twists and turns…” [24, p. 180].

Returning to subjectivity as the center of L.S. Vy­gotsky’s theory and the practical impact of psychotech­niques, it is necessary to note that subjectivity emerges when the transition from the natural form to the cultural form is expressed: “the subject and subjectivity are be­lieved cannot be pointed at”; they are not actually physi­cally present. Vygotsky does not point to the individual (or group of individuals), but to their way(s) of life. The subject is constructed as the mutual transition between the real and ideal forms. The pattern behind this process can be described as “sign mediation,” “when naturally formed stereotypes of behavior become the subject of change and … are overcome, becoming conscious and ar­bitrary” (i.e., a person masters their own behavior) [25, p. 8, 9]. The main condition for planning this transition is interfunctional restructurisation, achieved in a way that shapes the child’s cultural development. After all, “the only way … is to construct … a process with given properties” [12, p. 306]. Of course, the conditions of or­ganizing real-life communicative action are not outlined explicitly, but they can be reconstructed from the works of Russian researchers. The need to read and understand these texts hermeneutically causes difficulties, which are avoided through replicating the readily available foreign techniques. We have made an attempt to describe these conditions. Taken together, they should create a devel­opmental space, accommodating the child’s affective re­actions and meeting the following requirements:

— introducing new things in “doses”;

— changing the environment (nature of relation­ships) in the process of the child’s (the social envi­ronment’s) absorption of cultural experience, stage-by-stage [26]4; note that these stages must involve transition from reflecting objects (social environment) to trying out the limits of controlling their behavior and forming the skill of rationally using the communi­cative means (directly or, in the absence of verbal com­munication, indirectly [8, p.105], through restructur­ing the performance of the impaired function) or the mode of action [1]; overcoming syncretic thinking and developing interfunctional thinking;

— considering the specifics of how the child contacts the social environment and experiences social relations; helping the child overcome the semantic barrier (defined as the child’s insensitivity to the adult’s educational in­fluence [23, p. 9], although it is rather the adult who is insensitive to manifestations of the child’s activity);

— allocating the child’s personal action with its trans­formation into the child’s “I-action” [28, p. 163], build­ing work with the child with a focus on their spontane­ous activity, helping the child form their personal stance;

— shaping positional vision in a child with ASD, cor­related with the way of seeing the Other, i.e., the carrier of the concept of action [25], which would help the child to change their mode of action and alter the social situa­tion when reconstructing human culture.

It is reasonable to consider the development of me­diating (real-life, communicative) action on the basis of three subsystems of conditions that ensure its formation:

the first subsystem contains conditions that allow to consistently transform the child’s personal action into the I-action, forming the regulatory component of activity;

the second subsystem contains conditions that pre­vent the child’s demotivation, the deterioration of their emotional status and the negative emotional response to failure;

the third subsystem contains conditions that al­low the child to meaningfully use their communicative means (directly or, as an alternative, indirectly, by re­structuring the performance of the impaired function) [12, p. 168].

It should also be specified that the success of such work can be ensured by compliance with two require­ments:

1. The specialist applying the psychotechnique must have interdisciplinary knowledge of medical psychol­ogy in child and adolescent psychiatry, developmental psychology, systemic family therapy, and speech therapy (neurology). 
2. The specialist must develop the skill of holistic systemic interfunctional process analysis (as opposed to the simple structural functional behavioral analysis of external manifestations), which will allow them to restructure the performance of impaired in a fundamen­tally different way, preventing an increase in affective symptomatology, known as “the seven-star constellation of crisis symptoms” [9, p. 374]. Accounting for these re­quirements will make it possible to approach the process of the child’s development in a holistic way, to go above and beyond imposing “an image of the desired future” onto the child [22, p. 73], which would only entangle the child in “a vain struggle, eternal self-deception” [22, p. 76], and to actually form new phenomena of an en­tirely different quality: speech communication, I-action, self-reflection (i.e., criticism of performance), meaning­ful action (as opposed to mirrored repetition), with self-control and self-correction, ultimately helping the child gain an open, conscious attitude to the complex, contra­dictory and not always orderly world.

Considering that the degree of mastering an action is measured by its completeness, and the measure of generalization does not always allow for an immediate execution of a complete action, the triune task (the tri­une subsystem of conditions) is not always maintained in communication with the child, and adults limit them­selves to setting only one task — to develop the skill of using a communicative tool, and through alternative communication at that (as opposed to speech), we sug­gest a preliminary “action plan for our work and imme­diately proceed to the solution of our tasks according to this plan” [12, p. 189], thus maintaining proper guide­lines and keeping communication at a higher level (fig.).

This research was carried out in sequential stages, each of the stages being characterized by its own con­tent (type of interfunctional relations, social situation) and the specifics of the mediator’s actions during the transition (crisis) periods. In the process of construct­ing the general field of action, consistently moving to a higher degree of generalization, it is expedient to include the missing subsystems of conditions in the analysis of the child’s adult caretakers: “As soon as what has been learned has acquired a reduced form… an opportunity opens up for us to concentrate on the new task” [12, p. 303]. The action plan is an extremely convenient me­dium for this, because it allows us, by maintaining a high­er degree of generalization, to open up the possibility of action variability within each of the subsystems, while eliminating unnecessary non-directed movements that lead to disorganization. This directly correlates with the stages of development of thinking and play according to L.S. Vygotsky [7, p. 163], and also with D.B. Elkonin’s age periodization [30, p. 487]. Let us consider these stag­es in more detail.

The first stage: Pre-speech thinking and pre-intel­lectual play. [15, p. 156], mastering relationships [30, p. 487]. Most often corresponds to the primary recep­tion, when the directed interview of the child’s adult caretakers problematizes the discrepancy between the actual means of caring for the child with the cultural (ideal) means. Traditionally, mistakes occur in all three subsystems of conditions, but especially often the condi­tions of the second and third subsystems are not consid­ered, which causes the child to form a specific type of reaction, reflected thinking, and mechanical will, and to alternative communication only.

The second stage: The greatest discovery in life is the inability to think. [15, p. 156], crisis of the social devel­opment situation [30, p .487]. The work is based on the child’s actions in everyday life situations without the use of instrumental learning with a system of motivation. The main task solved at this stage is the primary orien­tation in the boundary of the child’s achievements and in the conditions of caring for the child; the limitations of these tools are demonstrated, and fundamental guide­lines are laid down for future child-adult action (with ongoing operational control by the specialist).

The third stage: The meeting as an instrumental method. Stage of cultural reception. [15, p. 156], mas­tering the subject [30, p. 487]. Formulation of the tri­une task, work with reference to the cultural norm and action concept (model), as well as the image of the ac­tion situation, formation a positional vision in the child (adult caretakers) in the process of learning to use the communicative means (mode of action): direct and indi­rect paths, with subsequent dosage-sequential reorgani­zation of relations, formulation of the final requirements imposed on the executive part of action. Pre-check of the action comprehension level: necessary to assess the un­derstanding to what degree the mode of action has been mastered. Formally we distinguish three types of action comprehension [21]:

• reflective, formal: imitation of action (mirroring), mechanical repetition;
• reflexive: comprehension within one functional sys­tem and orientation in one subsystem of conditions;
• interfunctional.

The fourth stage: Speech thinking: the external tool becomes internal, and is intellectualized. [15, p. 157], crisis of the adult-child relationship [30, с. 487]. This stage is characterized by the third interfunctional type of comprehension of the material, when participants choose meaningful components of action in a given situation, rely on other meaningful components when the situation changes, or complete the actions of other people. Fluent mastery of the communicative action is observed at this stage.

Following D.B. Elkonin, we note the presence of criti­cal periods in the process of action construction. They are characterized by conditional boundaries due to the child’s and the adult caretakers’ desire for independent judgment and the emergence of affect in response to the actions of the mediator. They always accompany “play as interac­tion between the real and ideal forms and, hence, as a spe­cial form of assimilation” [30, p. 483] and demand atten­tion to the occurrence of insufficiency and contradiction conflicts that lead to symptom aggravation and growth of “the seven-star constellation of crisis symptoms” [9, p. 374]. Therefore, the child’s response to the adult, active involvement a culturally affirming normative action, and reflection on this action, must be retained consistently at all stages of support work. After all, the child’s retention of the action’s concept (without disorganization on their part), is determined by the teacher’s action: “the direct fo­cus on the real object conditions of action (what A.N. Le­ontiev called operation) is included and defined in the cumulative action by focusing on the action of another! I act in such a way as to organize and prepare the actions of another person. I hold a nail with one hand and ham­mer it in with the other. My hands are positioned in a way that makes hammering easier. The two hands are like two people. This is what the inter-psychic is all about. That’s what’s getting intergrated! The Other is getting integrat­ed!” [30, p. 518]. At the same time, support is needed not only for the children, but also for the parents, especially in the situation of caring for children with a complex disabil­ity structure. Parents of such childrens are more likely to lose motivation, buying into the idea that it is impossible to change the trajectory of their child’s development. It is important to trace these situations and translate the dia­logue into a reflexive attitude to the mode of action (the mastery of the psychotechnical form), emphasizing what may have passed unnoticed. In children, just as in adults, disorganization is exacerbated by reflected syncretic thinking. When communicating with them, you can eas­ily notice when they are echoing phrases said by their parents or specialists, even with the preservation of the original intonation. Therefore, in order not to further dis­organize the child, it is necessary to understand what they “absorbed from the whole context” [6, p. 347]. In child development, “word” and “context” merge together, and without specially organized work, “special ways of includ­ing the actions of one person in the actions of another” [27, p. 60], “word” may never acquire the semantic shades of human culture, as “…a thought that is not embodied in the word remains a Stygian shadow, nothing but fog” [6, p. 361]. Let us confirm this with practical examples. We shall describe the effects that emerge while working with a simple reflexological action (behavioral approach) and mediating (real-life, communicative) action.

Work within the limits of reflexological action was distinguished by being instrumental, failing to consider the context and individual history of the child’s develop­ment, and using the functional analysis of behavior and external manifestations. The construction of the second type of communicative situation supported its dynamics, as well as changes in the child’s position, and restruc­tured intrafunctional connections and relations, leading to disinhibition of the speech function and development of the regulatory component of the child’s activity. As expected, we got different results.

While work within the framework of the reflexological communicative action yielded certain results (unsustain­able in the long term), it also had a delayed negative effect: children in the control group still showed echo reactions, insufficient speech development, lack of orientation in a situation, and fixed forms of behavior and were focused only on the emotional component of action (the adult’s fa­cial expressions and gestures), without analyzing what the adult was actually saying to them, even if it was in conflict with their interests. Here is a concrete example, which is more convincing than statistical calculations: the special­ist consults a boy, studying in grade 2 of the 8.2 program5. In an interaction situation, he is restless and calms down by drawing the alphabet with English letters, which he can continue doing indefinitely until stopped. He perceives the activity specifically as drawing, as he does not know how to spell and makes numerous notable mistakes (mir­rors when writing, misses parts of a letter…). He follows situational instructions, despite his pronounced problems with speech comprehension. In a situation where commu­nication is initiated, he shows an increase in anxiety and disorganized behavior due to a lack of understanding of what is required of him. The child looks at the adult, tries to choose an action that will satisfy the adult, going over the previously required actions, doing one or the other, repeating them in a stereotypical way: taking an eraser, erasing, putting it away in a pencil case, pushing a chair. Every time, he looks into the adult’s eyes, as if asking: “Am I doing it right? Is this what you want from me?” In the absence of an emotional reaction from the adult (approval or critique), the child’s disorganization only intensifies. He tries to say some words, turning to the adult and try­ing to initiate a dialogue: “album,” “write,” starts to rock in the chair and cry, grabs the specialist’s hand as a plea to organize his own activities (give “physical cues” in the words of “ABA therapists”). If an adult does not give the boy any examples to follow, he gets even more disorga­nized. In a situation where the instruction diverges from the child’s interests, there is also profound disorganiza­tion. For example, the specialist offers the child to ride a scooter (knowing that the child does not like it). Instead of answering, “No, I don’t want to!” which would have sat­isfied the researcher, the child begins to run around in a frenzy, crying and screaming: “The scooter! The scooter!” After the adult says, “You don’t want to ride the scooter? You don’t have to ride the scooter,” the child, still cry­ing, takes the scooter and heads for the door with it, in­tending to perform an action they are not interested in and were not even required to do. This example perfectly demonstrates the absence of developmental dynamics in the child during the preschool period, both at the level of using a cultural tool and at the level of organizing their actions. The cause is the instrumental, reflexological (be­havioral) nature of working with the child.

When a psychotechnique is applied instead, children reach a level of meaningful communication and no longer make the mistakes typical for children that worked with reflexological practices. These children are more confident in using a more universal cultural tool (verbal communica­tion), reaching the level of word creation and independent word formation when trying to construct a phrase. They have a decreased echo response. Thus, they can already correct the specialist when they use “trick” tasks in diag­nostics, and do not lose control when frustrated. When playing together, they can be heard saying, “This is blue­berry ice cream, not chocolate ice cream.” These children, as well as their parents, already become less sensitive to disturbances and less disorganized. A little girl’s mother would say, “Ah, I see what you want,” with a smile on her face. This phrase serves as excellent proof that a shared field of meaning had formed between the specialist and the child’s parents: the field of understanding, the fullest gen­eralized reference form of communicative action.

Through these examples, we clearly demonstrate that the communicative model, having been enriched with additional substantive parameters and having evolved beyond the superficial view of communication as an analysis of only external manifestations, forms a qualitatively different new phenomenon: reflexive speech consciousness, as opposed to reflected thinking. After all, “the capabilities … of imitation6 are not infi­nite” [9, p. 263], and the only condition allowing chil­dren with ASD to leave the autistic world is semantic restructuring: what we need is “not mechanical, auto­matic, meaningless imitation, but reasonable imitation … based on understanding” [9, p. 263]. For specialists, the communicative process, correlating with the meaning of the situation, changing its form in accordance with the emotional intuition and anticipation (completeness of orientation: interfunctional analysis), must become the intuition of conscience (as A.A. Ukhtomsky called it), which, “like Princess Cinderella… works more efficiently than her sister, the Will.” [17, p. 334]. This is when a child with emotional and volitional disorders (even with ASD) can obtain a different kind of knowledge of the world: “The emergence of a new point of development… here the affect that prompts the child to overcome dif­ficulties is extremely important. If these difficulties do not demagnetize the child… but activate them, they lead reveal an alternative development route” [8, p. 127]. Though, of course, this cannot be done alone, since “it is impossible for one person, but possible for two” [6, p. 361]. And “workarounds” need to be used as well [8, p. 105]. To read the Word [6, p. 361] means to under­stand the Meaning, which will reveal the line of reason­ing used by L. S. Vygotsky when talking about the re­lationship between affect and intellect. And only then will “…this very notion (affective ‘defect’), a sure sign of our own defect, disappear” [8, p. 72]. We must measure not what has been done, but “WHAT HAS NOT BEEN DONE YET” [15, p. 565]. This is what ensures a change in attitude to the world, an exit from the clinical para­digm and withdrawal of the cultural-historical theory from the ranks of behavioral sciences. 

¹ Russian science traditionally believes that, aside from steady evolution in the development of the human psyche, there are also leaps forward: the purposeful work and clear organization of the environment in order to make it possible to achieve changes in the child's psyche and significantly accelerate the child's mental development. This, for example, is covered in research on the crisis nature of development, in D.B. Elkonin's age periodization.

² В традиции отечественной науки считается, что возможны не только эволюционные периоды в развитии психики, но скачкообразные — поворотные периоды, позволяющие при целенаправленной работе и четкой организации среды добиться изменений в психике ребенка и существенно ускорить его психическое развитие. Такой позиции придерживается, например, Д.Б. Эльконин в исследовании о кризисном характере развития в возрастной периодизации.

³ В Is this science? After all, any science explains the genesis of a phenomenon and focuses on historicism and methodology, but what do we have here? Just statistics. In his work Questions of the Theory and History of Psychology [19, p. 454], L.S. Vygotsky called this a "feldsher's approach to science"— author's note.

⁴ In case of children with ASD, this involves creating a favorable environment for overcoming the semantic barrier and gaining the ability to understand speech; furthermore, this involves training the child to use communicative means (by taking the "the direct route" and the "indirect route" with nonverbal children, through restructuring the performance of the impaired function).

⁵ It begs the question, HOW did a nonverbal child get into this training program?

⁶ As opposed to overcoming the hypotonia of one's consciousness and the ability to go beyond reflective syncretic thinking and functional analysis. After all, turning to the tradition of non-classical psychology — the classical studies of domestic knowledge — makes it possible to build "togetherness" not upon the intersection of actions (the subject conflict), but rather upon overcoming the conflict of meaning and preventing disorganized behavior.

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