Shame-proneness and authenticity in emerging adulthood

Context and relevance. Authenticity is associated with well-being and is one of the conditions for the full functioning of the personality. However, maintaining authenticity may be associated with social risks. Shame, as a self-conscious emotion directed at the self and associated with the fear of social isolation, may restrict the expression of authenticity. The challenges of searching for the self and the consequences of shame-proneness are especially important in emerging adulthood, when decisions taken can critically affect life. Objective. To identify the presence and specific features of the relationship between personal authenticity and shame-proneness in emerging adulthood. Hypothesis. The level of personal authenticity is interconnected with shame experience, while the relationships of such experience with the various components of authenticity will be ambiguous. Methods and materials. The study involved 133 young people aged 18 to 29 (M = 23,8, SD = 2,9, 41,4% male). Authenticity, shame-proneness and the expression of traits in emerging adulthood were assessed using a battery of questionnaires (Moscow Authenticity Scale, Authenticity Scale, TOSCA-3, GASP, Inventory of the Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood). Results. Divergent relations of moderate strength were identified between shame-proneness and the components of authenticity, taking into account the traits of emerging adulthood. Shame-proneness is positively associated with self-alienation and accepting external influence, and is negatively related to authentic living. For authenticity measured with the Moscow Authenticity Scale, a negative relation was found between shame-proneness and the aspects of authenticity related to knowing and accepting oneself. Conclusions. The identified connections are weak or moderate in strength, which suggests that the consequences of a tendency to experience shame can be offset by an authentic person's ability to accept their imperfections and their high capacity to follow their purpose and accept life's circumstances.

Introduction

Authenticity is associated with personal well-being, resilience in the face of crises and change, and the ability to maintain a sense of continuity in one's self-image despite changing social roles and the alienating influence of mass culture (Joseph, 2022; Nartova-Bochaver, 2023; Wood et al., 2008).

In a broad sense, authenticity refers to the ability to act in accordance with one's own feelings, values, and beliefs (Joseph, 2022). Two approaches to conceptualizing authenticity draw on traditional theories of personality: the person-centered approach (Wood et al., 2008) and the subject-oriented approach (Nartova-Bochaver, Bochaver, Korneev, 2024). These approaches complement each other by highlighting two aspects of authenticity: an orientation toward the self and an orientation toward the outside world (Vachkov, Peremolotova, 2025).

The person-centered approach is based on Carl Rogers' theory and views authenticity as “...a complex phenomenon that involves striving to identify and satisfy one's own needs while also being able to live harmoniously with others and respond to their needs” (Joseph, 2022, pp. 11–12). Authenticity involves maintaining consistency across three levels of functioning: primary experience (sensations, emotional states, thoughts, and unconscious attitudes), its symbolization (conscious attitudes, values, and beliefs), and the expression of experience through communication and behavior (Joseph, 2022; Wood et al., 2008). Authenticity is defined by three components that reflect the degree of consistency across these levels of functioning.

1. A discrepancy between experience and its symbolization gives rise to self-alienation, which involves a subjective sense of not knowing oneself (Joseph, 2022).
2. Consistency between behavior and symbolized experience is referred to in the model as authentic living – the ability to remain true to oneself even in situations where one's values and beliefs need to be defended (Joseph, 2022).
3. Accepting external influence refers to the relationship between the influence of internalized norms and mechanisms of criticism or approval (Wood et al., 2008) and one's willingness to take responsibility for one's actions (Joseph, 2022).

The subject-oriented approach places authenticity within the context of a person's existence and draws on S. Rubinstein's theory of personality. Authenticity is defined as “...a transcendent and adaptive personality trait that enables a person to remain true to their nature (individual qualities), the spatial and temporal circumstances of their life (environmental parameters of existence), and their calling and purpose (existential and transcendent challenges)” (Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2024, p. 24). This definition also implies sensitivity to deviations from one's purpose and life path (Nartova-Bochaver, 2023). Throughout life, authenticity develops in two directions. First, a person increasingly takes authorship of their own life. Second, authenticity involves maintaining a connection with the “True Self” in interactions with others while recognizing the role of other people in deepening self-understanding (Nartova-Bochaver et al., 2023).

Because authenticity involves both an orientation toward the self and an orientation toward the outside world, a person may give up authenticity in a challenging social situation when remaining true to oneself carries a risk of social rejection (Nartova-Bochaver, 2023; Hopwood et al., 2021; Sedikides, Schlegel, 2024). This suggests that authenticity may be related to self-conscious emotions, which reflect how people relate to themselves and are closely connected to the social context.

Shame, as a self-conscious emotion, is associated with the perception of the self and with fear of social isolation (Singh, Bhushan, 2025). J. Tangney defines shame as follows: “Shame is an emotion directed at the perception of one's self as a whole. A person feels insignificant, unworthy, and subject to the judgment of others” (Tangney, Dearing, 2002, p. 25).

The phenomenology of shame suggests that a person's attention becomes fully focused on the self; at such moments, the self feels exposed (Izard, 2006), which can be experienced as pain, including at the physiological level (Izard, 2006; Singh, Bhushan, 2025). Shame involves a complex set of affective experiences, including isolation, fear, helplessness, an acute sense of defeat, aggression, and sadness (Izard, 2006). Under normal conditions, shame serves an adaptive function and promotes prosocial behavior and identity development (Izard, 2006). However, intense shame can impair a person's capacity for development, reduce empathy, and contribute to psychopathology, personality disorders, and difficulties in social interaction (Tangney, Dearing, 2022). They may also result in traumatic experiences (Bogolyubova, Kiseleva, 2015b). People may experience a loss of self-control and dissociation and may find it difficult to talk about their feelings (Bogolyubova, Kiseleva, 2015a; Kouri et al., 2023). Maladaptive shame can remain hidden behind unconscious defenses that reduce its intensity or mask it with other feelings (Brown, 2014). Research has identified several strategies for coping with shame: withdrawal, escape, aggression toward oneself, and aggression toward others (Tangney, Dearing, 2002).

The negative aspects of shame are closely related to the concept of shame-proneness, defined as a predisposition to respond with shame across different situations that has become a relatively stable personality trait and involves an affective response to events (Tangney, Dearing, 2002). Researchers have linked the development of shame-proneness to several factors, including parenting style within the family (Tangney, Dearing, 2002), past traumatic experiences (Bogolyubova, Kiseleva, 2015b; Flach, Cariola, 2025; Wang, 2025), and changes in life and social circumstances (Wang, 2025).

Qualitative studies have suggested a relationship between shame and authenticity. A high level of shame-proneness may inhibit the expression of authenticity. Conversely, an authentic person may be less likely to respond with maladaptive shame across a range of situations (Brown, 2014; Hughes, Blundell, 2024). Research on the relationship between authenticity and stress provides indirect support for this assumption (Nartova-Bochaver, 2023).

According to L.S. Vygotsky, personality development is inseparable from the social conditions in which a person lives (Vygotsky, 2004). The theoretical perspective of cultural-historical psychology therefore draws attention to the social conditions that shape these phenomena. In the person-centered conceptualization of authenticity, primary experience is expressed in accordance with social norms. The subject-oriented paradigm of authenticity emphasizes the role of social interactions in recognizing the “True Self”. In her theory of shame resilience, B. Brown views shame as a biopsychosocial and cultural construct (Brown, 2006) that is linked to social conditions and shaped by culture. The connection between shame, authenticity, and the social environment suggests that their development depends on the social situation of development (Vygotsky, 2004). This makes it relevant to examine the relationship between shame-proneness and authenticity during a period of life when these phenomena are particularly significant.

Instability, identity exploration, a fluctuating sense of adulthood, gaining independence, the need to make new decisions that comes with it, and a wide range of opportunities and possibilities for experimentation characterize emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2024). This period represents a specific social situation of development (Klementyeva, Ivanova, 2023) that spans the ages of 18 to 29. It falls between adolescence, when a person remains dependent on their parents, and adulthood, when a person takes responsibility for their life, makes decisions independently, and gains financial independence (Arnett, 2024). During this period, people make critically important decisions about their career, their partner for a family relationship, and where to live. Based on the characteristics of this period, J. Arnett (Arnett, 2024) identified five distinctive features of emerging adulthood: identity explorations, instability, feeling in-between, possibilities/optimism about one's future, and self-focus. Instability is associated with anxiety and lower subjective well-being (Klementyeva, 2023; Yerofeeva, 2025).

Emerging adults begin to distinguish between authentic and inauthentic states (Yerofeeva, 2025). During this period, authenticity is associated with creativity, a creative approach to life, a desire for autonomy, and reflection (Vachkov, Khramova, 2021; Yerofeeva, 2025), whereas inauthenticity is associated with fear of self-expression, loss of autonomy, and suppression of inner experience. The dimensions of emerging adulthood correlate with levels of authenticity, with more instability associated with lower levels of authenticity (Yerofeeva, 2025).

Emerging adulthood is a period marked by social pressure and high risks. During this time, people may face problems related to addictions, depressive and anxiety disorders, personality disorders, eating disorders, self-harm, and suicidal behavior (Zolotareva, Maltseva, Sarapultseva, 2025; Arnett, 2024). These problems have been associated with shame-proneness (Tangney, Dearing, 2002).

Taken together, these findings suggest that shame and authenticity are particularly important issues for emerging adults. The dimensions of emerging adulthood may affect levels of authenticity and shame-proneness.

The aim of the study is to examine the presence and characteristics of the relationship between personal authenticity and shame-proneness in emerging adulthood.

The study hypothesis is that the level of personal authenticity is related to the experience of shame, while the relationships between shame and different components of authenticity may differ.

Specific hypotheses

1. Shame-proneness is positively associated with self-alienation and accepting external influence in emerging adulthood.
2. Shame-proneness is negatively associated with authentic living in emerging adulthood.
3. Shame-proneness is negatively associated with the level of authenticity in emerging adulthood.

Materials and methods

The study included 133 young adults aged 18 to 29 years (M = 23,8, SD = 2,9), of whom 55 (41,4%) were men. Data were collected from Internet users using Yandex Forms.

Measures

1. Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood Questionnaire, Russian adaptation (Yerofeeva, 2023). The questionnaire is designed to assess the profile of dimensions of emerging adulthood.
2. Test of Self-Conscious Affect–3 (TOSCA-3), Russian adaptation (Makogon, Enikolopov, 2020). Scores were calculated for the Shame-proneness scale, which measures the tendency to experience shame.
3. Guilt and Shame Proneness Scale (GASP), Russian adaptation (Makogon, Enikolopov, 2014). The study used the shame-related scales Shame-NSE (Negative Self-Evaluation) and Shame-withdraw.
4. Moscow Authenticity Scale (MAS), which measures the level of authenticity within the subject-oriented approach to authenticity (Reznichenko, Irkhin, Nartova-Bochaver, 2021).
5. Authenticity Scale, Russian adaptation (Nartova-Bochaver, Reznichenko, Maltby, 2021). The measure assesses authenticity using three scales: Self-Alienation (SA), Accepting External Influence (AEI), and Authentic Living (AL).

Data analysis

Data were analyzed using Jamovi statistical software (version 2.6.44.0). Associations were examined using Spearman's rank correlation analysis and partial correlation analysis.

Results

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics stratified by gender.

Table 1

Descriptive statistics

Note: M — Mean; SD — Standard Deviation.

To account for the contribution that the dimensions of emerging adulthood may make to levels of shame-proneness and personal authenticity, we calculated correlations between shame-proneness and the dimensions of emerging adulthood (Table 2).

Table 2

Relationship between the indicators of dimensions of emerging adulthood and shame-proneness (N = 133)

Note: NSE — Negative self-evaluation; «***» — p-value < 0,001; «**» — p-value < 0,01; «*» — p-value < 0,05.

The largest number of positive correlations was found between the Shame-proneness scale, the shame components, and Instability (r = 0,349***, r = 0,304***, r = 0,234**). Shame-proneness and negative self-evaluation were correlated with Identity explorations (r = 0,228** and 0,261**, respectively) and Feeling in-between (r = 0,267** and 0,219**, respectively). Shame-withdraw was negatively correlated with Experiments (r = –0,241**).

Table 3 presents the correlation coefficients between authenticity and the dimensions of emerging adulthood.

Table 3

Relationship between the indicators of dimensions of emerging adulthood and authenticity (N = 133)

Note: MAS — Moscow authenticity scale; AEI — Accepting external influence; SA — Self-alienation; AL — Authentic living; «***» — p-value < 0,001, «*» — p-value < 0,05.

Instability was correlated with all components of the Authenticity Scale and with the Authenticity score measured using the MAS. Positive correlations were found between the Authenticity scale and the following dimensions of emerging adulthood: Experiments (r = 0,292***) and Self-focus (r = 0,296***).

Table 4 presents the partial correlation coefficients between shame-proneness and authenticity indicators, controlling for the dimensions of emerging adulthood.

Table 4

Relationship between the indicators of authenticity and shame-proneness with emerging adulthood dimensions controlled (N = 133)

Note: controlling for Instability dimension, for relation between MAS and Shame-withdraw controlling for dimensions Instability and Experiments; NSE — Negative self-evaluation; «***» — p-value < 0,001; «**» — p-value < 0,01; «*» — p-value < 0,05.

When controlling for Instability, moderate and near-moderate correlations were found between the components of the Authenticity Scale and the Shame-proneness scale: Self-alienation (r = 0,318***), Authentic Living (r = –0,278**), and Accepting External Influence (r = 0,205*). Correlations were also found between Shame-withdraw and Self-alienation (r = 0,304***) and Authentic Living (r = –0,380***). When controlling for Instability, no significant association was found between Authenticity, as measured by the MAS, and the Shame-proneness scale.

Partial Spearman correlation coefficients were calculated separately for each item of the MAS, controlling for the dimensions of emerging adulthood; the results are presented in Table 5

Table 5

Relationship between the indicators of authenticity and shame-proneness with emerging adulthood dimensions controlled (N = 133)

Note: controlling for Instability dimension, for relation between MAS and Shame-withdraw controlling for dimensions Instability and Experiments; NSE — Negative self-evaluation; «**» — p-value < 0,01; «*» — p-value < 0,05.

A correlation was found between the Shame-proneness scale and those aspects of authenticity related to self-knowledge (r = –0,249**) and self-acceptance (r = –0,288**).

Discussion

The study revealed associations between the dimensions of emerging adulthood and shame-proneness. Instability was associated with shame-proneness. The higher the levels of confusion, instability, and external pressure, the more likely a person was to respond with shame, negatively evaluate themselves, and seek to avoid difficult social situations. At the same time, when experiencing intense shame, a person may interpret what is happening through psychological defense mechanisms and transfer feelings characteristic of shame to the situation (Joseph, 2022; Izard, 2006).

The association between shame-proneness and Feeling in-between indicates that gaining independence and experiencing a fluctuating sense of adulthood are accompanied by feelings of inadequacy, fear of judgment, and concerns about being negatively regarded by others. This may be explained by the pressure of social expectations, which may elicit a tendency to respond with shame, as well as by the process of separation, which may be accompanied by feelings of shame (Korennaia, Ralnikova, 2024).

The positive association between shame-proneness and Identity explorations suggests that, during emerging adulthood, a tendency to respond with shame and negatively evaluate oneself may prompt individuals to focus on themselves, their plans for the future, the search for meaning, and their own beliefs. Shame and negative self-evaluation may motivate individuals to reflect on the development of their identity (Izard, 2006).

Associations were found between the dimensions of emerging adulthood and authenticity. The largest number of associations was found between Instability and all indicators of authenticity. Feelings of confusion, stress, and external pressure are associated with a sense of alienation and an inability to express one's feelings, values, and beliefs, which is consistent with the model of authenticity as a state of flow characterized by emotional, cognitive, and motivational fluency (Sedikides, Schlegel, 2024). At the same time, these associations contradict the assumption that authenticity increases when individuals encounter uncertainty and stress; the nature of everyday stress characteristic of emerging adulthood may play a role (Nartova-Bochaver, 2023). In addition, in some cases, individuals may not have sufficient authenticity resources to cope with instability while remaining true to their “True Self”, as emerging adulthood is a period of developing authenticity (Klementyeva, 2023).

A positive association was found between authenticity, as measured by the Moscow Authenticity Scale, and the dimensions Experiments and Self-focus. Authenticity during emerging adulthood is associated with opportunities, exploration, trying new things, freedom, and independence – in other words, with opportunities for self-realization. This is consistent with research linking authenticity during this period to autonomy, a creative approach to life, and creativity (Vachkov, Khramova, 2021; Yerofeeva, 2025).

The findings support the following specific hypotheses of the study: that shame-proneness is positively associated with Self-alienation and Accepting External Influence, and that shame-proneness is negatively associated with Authentic Living.

The positive association between shame-proneness and Self-alienation is consistent with understanding shame as a state of psychological distress in which dissociation separates a person from awareness of their primary experience (Bogolyubova, Kiseleva, 2015a; Hughes, 2024; Kouri et al., 2023). Self-alienation is associated with a tendency to withdraw; this association suggests an unconscious defensive response that may arise in response to shame experienced as a threat of isolation. In such cases, a person is unable to make sense of their state. At the same time, the inability to become aware of and express one's experience may itself contribute to isolation and intensify shame (Brown, 2014).

The negative association between shame-proneness and authentic living confirms that shame-proneness is accompanied by the suppression of one's internal experience, values, and beliefs in behavior. On the one hand, the association between authentic living and a tendency to withdraw indicates that a person who follows their feelings, attitudes, and values is less likely to resort to a maladaptive avoidance strategy when experiencing shame. On the other hand, avoidance may be an unconscious response to intense shame that prevents a person from consciously acting in accordance with their values and attitudes (Brown, 2014).

Accepting External Influence was positively associated with shame-proneness, suggesting that external influence and feelings of inadequacy may lead a person to relinquish responsibility for their actions. The reverse may also be true: by accepting external influence, a person may distance themselves from their “True Self”, thereby reinforcing a sense of its unworthiness, which may contribute to maladaptive shame (Brown, 2014).

No association was found between shame-proneness and the level of authenticity measured using the Moscow Authenticity Scale when Instability was controlled for. Given that the subject-oriented approach includes adaptive and transcendent aspects of authenticity (Nartova-Bochaver, 2023), a negative association was found between shame-proneness and self-knowledge and self-acceptance. Individuals who tend to respond with shame may have less self-understanding and may be less inclined to accept themselves as they are. At the same time, no association was found between shame-proneness and the other aspects of authenticity measured within the subject-oriented approach. This may be an artifact of the measures used, as the Moscow Authenticity Scale encompasses three dimensions of human existence, whereas the TOSCA-3 does not address the environmental and existential aspects of shame.

The associations identified in the study were moderate and weak; therefore, the relationship between shame and authenticity accounts for only part of the findings. This pattern is consistent with the complexity of psychological life, in which multiple emotions are present simultaneously and influence how a person perceives a situation and behaves (Izard, 2006). There are also factors that influence authenticity independently of shame (Sedikides, Schlegel, 2024). For example, the coexistence of high shame-proneness and high levels of personal authenticity may be explained by the fact that authenticity involves knowing and accepting one's negative qualities (Huang et al., 2025), awareness of which is characteristic of shame. Thus, shame may not alter one's representation of the “True Self”. At the same time, shame-proneness is an emotional response whose negative effects may be mitigated through the use of adaptive strategies for coping with shame (Tangney, Dearing, 2002), which restore a person's capacity to be authentic.

Conclusion

The findings indicate an association between the level of personal authenticity and shame-proneness during emerging adulthood. An analysis of existing research suggests that these phenomena are interrelated. On the one hand, a tendency to respond with shame across different situations is associated with insufficient self-understanding and reflection on one's current experience, reluctance to take responsibility, and a limited ability to stand up for one's feelings, beliefs, and values. On the other hand, the ability to remain committed to one's “True Self” is accompanied by greater sensitivity to the situation and allows a person to use a broader repertoire of strategies for coping with shame.

Among the components of shame-proneness, the tendency to withdraw showed the largest number of associations with components of authenticity. This strategy appears to be negatively associated with adaptive aspects of authenticity. Negative self-evaluation was negatively associated with following one's purpose, self-knowledge, and self-acceptance.

Associations were also found between shame-proneness and the dimensions of emerging adulthood. Instability was positively correlated with higher shame-proneness. Higher levels of Experiments were associated with a lower tendency to withdraw. Identity explorations were associated with negative self-evaluation.

Research perspectives. The findings point to an association between the emotional sphere and authenticity. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine the dynamics of the relationship between shame and authenticity at different stages of emerging adulthood, using a broader range of measurement and data analysis methods. Further research should also examine gender, cultural, and socio-psychological differences; the contribution of the family context and digital environment; and the development and evaluation of psychological interventions aimed at reducing shame-proneness and supporting authenticity.

Limitations. The limitations of the study include the relatively small sample size and the methods used to assess shame-proneness, which do not allow for an assessment of the social and transcendent dimensions of shame.

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