Skip to Main Content

Clinical Psychology and Special Education
2025. Vol. 14, no. 4, 56–68
doi:10.17759/cpse.2025140404
ISSN: 2304-0394 (online)

Predictors and dynamics of post-traumatic stress disorder in women during pregnancy and after the birth of a child in the COVID-19 pandemic

 
Audio is AI-generated
5

, ,

PDF (RUS)
Online translation in english
GS
Information
in Google Scholar
Metrics

Abstract

Context and relevance. During the pandemic, there has been an increase in mental health problems among pregnant women and young mothers, including PTSD (10.5–27.93%). Maladaptive coping strategies have prevailed, and PTSD during pregnancy correlates with problems in the physical development of children. After the birth of a child, it can negatively affect relationships with partners, children, lead to decreased breastfeeding, problems with behavior and socio-emotional development in children, as well as a negative attitude towards the child. However, the attitude toward a child can also be a protective factor for a woman's mental health. Objective. The aim is to study the indicators and dynamics of PTSD in women during pregnancy and after childbirth, as well as the relationship between PTSD indicators and mental health values and attitudes toward the child during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods and materials. The study involves 283 pregnant women aged 28–42, after the birth of a child, 72 people from this sample participated in the study. The following scales were used: Impact of Event Scale, “Attitudes towards pregnancy and motherhood” Tests, Pre- and Postnatal Attachment Scales, ASEBA and Reactive Anxiety Scale. Results revealed a decrease in PTSD after childbirth. Its predictors were some indicators of mental health at both studied points. Three types of attitudes toward pregnancy/motherhood and child have an impact on PTSD both periods. Use of non-constructive coping strategies during pregnancy affects PTSD in first year of child's life. Risk group is women with high level of PTSD during pregnancy. Conclusions. Specialists should pay attention to pregnant and young mothers with high levels PTSD as well as pronounced anxious attitudes towards pregnancy and child.

General Information

Keywords: post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), pregnancy, postpartum period, mental health, attitude towards the child

Journal rubric: Empirical Research

Article type: scientific article

DOI: https://doi.org/10.17759/cpse.2025140404

Funding. The research was carried out with financial support from the Russian Science Foundation as part of scientific project no. 25-28-00484, https://rscf.ru/en/project/25-28-00484/.

Received 30.09.2025

Revised 20.12.2025

Accepted

Published

For citation: Anikina, V.O., Savenysheva, S.S., Blokh, M.E. (2025). Predictors and dynamics of post-traumatic stress disorder in women during pregnancy and after the birth of a child in the COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical Psychology and Special Education, 14(4), 56–68. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.17759/cpse.2025140404

© Anikina V.O., Savenysheva S.S., Blokh M.E., 2025

License: CC BY-NC 4.0

References

  1. Аникина, В.О., Савенышева, С.С., Блох, М.Е. (2021). Психическое здоровье женщин в период беременности в условиях пандемии коронавируса COVID-19: обзор зарубежных исследований. Современная зарубежная психология, 10(1), 70—78. https://doi.org/10.17759/jmfp.2021100107
    Anikina, V.O., Savenysheva, S.S., Blokh, M.E. (2021). Mental health of pregnant women during COVID-19 pandemic: review of international literature. Modern Foreign Psychology, 10(1), 70—78. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.17759/jmfp.2021100107
  2. Савенышева, С.С., Блох, М.Е., Аникина, В.О. (2025) Психическое здоровье и отношение к ребенку женщин во время беременности и в первый год жизни ребенка в период пандемии COVID-19. В: Современная перинатальная психология в научно-практических клинических исследованиях (И.А. Золотова, ред.). Ярославль: Аверс Плюс.
    Savenysheva, S.S., Blokh, M.Y., Anikina, V.O. (2025). Mental health and attitude to a child during pregnancy and child’s first year of life at the COVID-19 pandemic. In: Modern Perinatal Psychology in Scientific and Clinical Research (I.A. Zolotova, ed.). Yaroslavl: Avers Plus. (In Russ.).
  3. Харченко, А.А., Юрьева, В.С., Якупова, В.А., Суарэз, А.Д. (2024). Психологическая и фармакологическая помощь при послеродовой депрессии и послеродовом ПТСР в России: социоэкономические факторы. Консультативная психология и психотерапия, 32(2), 9—30. https://doi.org/10.17759/cpp.2024320201
    Kharchenko, A.A., Yurieva, V.S., Yakupova, V.A., Suarez, A.D. (2024). Psychological and pharmacological care for postpartum depression and postpartum PTSD in Russia: socio-economic factors. Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy, 32(2), 9—30. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.17759/cpp.2024320201
  4. Харламенкова, Н.Е. (2017). Психология посттравматического стресса: итоги и перспективы исследований. Психологический журнал, 38(1), 16—30. https://doi.org/31857/S20000380-5-1
    Kharlamenkova, N.E. (2017). Psychology of posttraumatic stress: results and prospects for future researches. Psychological Journal, 38(1), 16—30. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/31857/S20000380-5-1
  5. Якупова, В.А., Аникеева, М.А., Суарэз, А.Д. (2023). Посттравматическое стрессовое расстройство после родов: обзор исследований. Клиническая и специальная психология, 12(2), 70—93. https://doi.org/17759/cpse.2023120204
    Yakupova, V.A., Anikeeva, M.A., Suarez, A.D. (2023). Postpartum Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A review. Clinical Psychology and Special Education, 12(2), 70—93. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.17759/cpse.2023120204
  6. Якупова, В.А., Суарэз, А.Д., Шрайбман, Л.А. (2023). Социально-экономические факторы риска развития послеродовой депрессии. Российский психологический журнал, 20(1), 182—201. https://doi.org/10.21702/rpj.2023.1.12
    Yakupova, V.A., Suarez, A.D., Shraibmann, L.A. (2023). Socio-economic risk factors of postpartum depression. Russian Psychological Journal, 20(1), 182—201. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.21702/rpj.2023.1.12
  7. Babu, M.S., Chan, S.J., Ein-Dor, T., Dekel, S. (2022). Traumatic childbirth during COVID-19 triggers maternal psychological growth and in turn better mother-infant bonding. Journal of Affective Disorders, 313, 163—166. https://doi.org/1016/j.jad.2022.06.076
  8. Cigaran, R.-G., Peltecu, G., Mustata, L.-M., Botezatu, R. (2024). Stress coping strategies of pregnant women during COVID-19 pandemic: a literature review. MAEDICA – a Journal of Clinical Medicine, 19(4), 848—855. https://doi.org/10.26574/maedica.2024.19.4.848
  9. Dekel, S., Papadakis, J.E., Quagliarini, B., Pham, C.T., Pacheco-Barrios, K., Hughes, F., Jagodnik, K.M., Nandru, R. (2024). Preventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder following childbirth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 230(6), 610—641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2023.12.013
  10. Delanerolle, C., McCauley, M., Hirsch, M., Zeng, Y., Cong, X., Cavalini, H., Sajid, S., Shetty, A., Rathod, S., Qing Shi, J., Hapangama, D.K., Phiri, P. (2023). The prevalence of mental ill-health in women during pregnancy and after childbirth during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 23, art. 76. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-022-05243-4
  11. Erickson, N., Julian, , Muzik, M. (2019). Perinatal depression, PTSD, and trauma: Impact on mother-infant attachment and interventions to mitigate the transmission of risk. International Review of Psychiatry, 31(3), 245—263. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2018.1563529
  12. Gilliam, , Howell, K.H., Paulson, J.L., Napier, T.R., Miller-Graff, L.E. (2022). Pregnancy complications and intimate partner violence: The moderating role of prenatal posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 35(5), 1484—1496. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22855
  13. Harrison, S., Quigley, M.A., Fellmeth, G., Stein, A., Ayers, S., Alderdice, F. (2024). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on postnatal anxiety and posttraumatic stress: Analysis of two population-based national maternity surveys in England. Journal of Affective Disorders, 356, 122—136 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.04.003
  14. Horsch, A., Garthus-Niegel, S., Ayers, S., Chandra, P., Hartmann, K., Vaisbuch, E., Lalor, J. (2024). Childbirth-related posttraumatic stress disorder: definition, risk factors, pathophysiology, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 230(3S), S1116—S1127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2023.09.089
  15. Jiang, М., Chen, L., Tuo, N., Yang, D., Liu, S., Huang, Z. (2025). Prenatal mental health and its stress-process mechanisms during a pandemic lockdown: A moderated parallel mediation model. Psychiatry Investigation, 22(3), 221—230 https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2024.0205
  16. Johnson, M.S., Skjerdingstad, N., Ebrahimi, O., Hoffart, A., Johnson, U. (2024). Fear of giving birth alone: Experiences of psychological distress, symptoms of anxiety and depression, and coping- strategies of childbearing women during COVID-19. Midwifery, 131, art. 103951 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2024.103951
  17. Kranenburg, L., Lambregtse-van den Berg, M., Stramrood, C. (2023). Traumatic childbirth experience and childbirth-related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A contemporary overview. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4), art. 2775. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042775
  18. Mayopoulos, G, Ein-Dor, T, Dishy, G, Nandru, R., Chan, S.J., Hanley, L.E., Kaimal, A.J., Dekel, S. (2021). COVID-19 is associated with traumatic childbirth and subsequent mother-infant bonding problems. Journal of Affective Disorders, 282, 122— https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.101
  19. Navon-Eyal, M, Taubman-Ben-Ari, O. (2025). Psychological well-being during pregnancy: The contribution of stress factors and maternal-fetal bonding. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 43(1), 47—61. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2023.2222143
  20. Peng, Z., Liu, J., Liu, B., Zhou, J., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y. (2024). Psychological interventions to pregnancy-related complications in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder: a scoping review. BMC Psychiatry, 24, art. 478. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05926-6
  21. Romero, G., Huth-Bocks, A., Puro-Gallagher, E., Riggs, (2021). Maternal prenatal depression, PTSD, and problematic parenting: the mediating role of maternal perceptions of infant emotion. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 39(2), 125—139. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2020.1754371
  22. Shiffman, N., Gluska, H., Margalit, S., Mayer, Y., Daher, R., Elyasyanb, L., Elia, N., Weiner, M.S., Miremberg, H., Kovo, M., Biron-Shental, T., Gabbay-Benziv, R., Helpman, L. (2023). Postpartum post-traumatic stress symptoms during the COVID-19 period: exposure and fear as mediating factors. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), art. 2228151. https://doi.org/1080/20008066.2023.2228151
  23. Shuman, J., Morgan, M.E., Pareddy, N., Chiangong, J., Veliz, P., Peahl, A., Dalton, V. (2022). Associations among Postpartum Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms and COVID-19 Pandemic-Related Stressors. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health, 67(5), 626—634. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmwh.13399
  24. Van Sieleghem, S., Danckaerts, M., Rieken, , Okkerse, J.M.E., de Jonge, E., Bramer, W.M, Lambregtse-van den Berg, M.P. (2022). Childbirth related PTSD and its association with infant outcome: A systematic review. Early Human Development, 174, art. 105667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2022.105667
  25. Yakupova, V., Suarez, (2022). Postpartum PTSD and birth experience in Russian-speaking women. Midwifery, 112, art. 103385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2022.103385
  26. Yakupova, V., Suarez, A., Kharchenko, A. (2021). Birth experience, postpartum PTSD and depression before and during the Pandemic of COVID-19 in Russia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), art. 335. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010335
  27. Zitoun, N.M., Campbell, M.K, Gagnier, J., Kamalabadi, Y.M., Garcia-Bournissen, F. (2025). Associations between PTSD and pregnancy outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 25, art. 802. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-025-07545-9

Information About the Authors

Varvara O. Anikina, Candidate of Science (Psychology), associate professor at the chair of early intervention and mental health, department of psychology, Saint-Petersburg State University, St.Petersburg, Russian Federation, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0028-6806, e-mail: v.anikina@spbu.ru

Svetlana S. Savenysheva, Candidate of Science (Psychology), Professor in Department of Psychology of Development at Psychology Faculty, Saint-Petersburg State University, St.Petersburg, Russian Federation, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7529-1493, e-mail: owlsveta@mail.ru

Mariia E. Blokh, Candidate of Science (Medicine), Associate professor, Division of Child and Parent Mental Health and Early Intervention, Saint Petersburg State University, psychotherapist, Dr D.O. Ott Research Institute of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproduction, St.Petersburg, Russian Federation, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8609-6936, e-mail: blohme@list.ru

Contribution of the authors

The authors contributed equally to the research, data analysis, and preparation of this manuscript. All authors participated in the discussion of the results and approved the final text of the manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Ethics statement

Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by respondents.

Metrics

 Web Views

Whole time: 10
Previous month: 0
Current month: 10

 PDF Downloads

Whole time: 5
Previous month: 0
Current month: 5

 Total

Whole time: 15
Previous month: 0
Current month: 15