Digital self-presentation as a form of social identity representation in the analysis of the risk of armed attacks in educational organizations

Context and relevance. In contemporary research on armed attacks in educational institutions, the analysis of pre-criminal manifestations of risk is gaining increasing significance. However, a substantial part of existing approaches focuses either on the retrospective description of completed attacks or on the identification of separate isolated risk factors, which fail to explain how a vulnerable individual gradually becomes involved in a destructive symbolic context. In this regard, the digital environment is of particular importance, as it provides a publicly observable expression of the processes of social identification, self-presentation, and symbolic self-referencing. Objective. To clarify the theoretical status of digital self-presentation as a form of social identity representation and to substantiate its applicability to the psychological analysis of the risk of armed attacks in educational institutions. Methods. This study is structured as a theoretical paper. Methods employed include a comparative analysis of domestic and international research, a critical analysis of explanatory models of armed attacks in educational settings, and a theoretical reconstruction of the logic underlying the analysis of digital self-presentation. Results. A theoretical model is proposed for analyzing digital self-presentation as a form of social identity manifestation in the digital environment. Psychological significance is attributed to the combination of elements of a digital profile: the content of publications, symbols, the emotional orientation of content, and observable forms of digital activity. In contrast to approaches focused on describing typical characteristics of a potential attacker, the proposed model considers digital activity through the process of involvement in a destructive symbolic context. Conclusions. The proposed model defines the analytical value of overt digital manifestations for the study of pre-criminal risks of armed attacks in educational institutions.

1. Гриненко, У.Б. (2021). Проблема скулшутинга в образовательной среде. Психологические исследования, 14(80), Статья 2. https://doi.org/10.54359/ps.v14i80.109
   Grinenko, U.B. (2021). The problem of school shooting in the educational environment. Psychological Studies, 14(80), Article 2. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.54359/ps.v14i80.109
2. Дозорцева, Е.Г., Ошевский, Д.С., Сыроквашина, К.В. (2020). Психологические, социальные и информационные аспекты нападений несовершеннолетних на учебные заведения. Психология и право, 10(2), 97—110. https://doi.org/10.17759/psylaw.2020100208
   Dozortseva, E.G., Oshevsky, D.S., Syrokvashina, K.V. (2020). Psychological, social and informational aspects of attacks by minors on educational institutions. Psychology and Law, 10(2), 97—110. (In Russ.). https://doi.org/10.17759/psylaw.2020100208
3. Allely, C.S., Scheithauer, H., Langman, P. (2025). Case analysis: Application of the terrorist radicalization assessment protocol—18 to the perpetrator of the marjory stoneman douglas high school shooting in Parkland, Florida. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 12(3), 197—214. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000233
4. Allwinn, M., King, S., Tultschinetski, S., Görgen, T. (2025). Preattack warning behaviors in the digital space: A case study of a fame-seeking rampage shooter. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 12(3), 178—196. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000240
5. Bayer, J.B., Ellison, N.B., Schoenebeck, S.Y., Falk, E.B. (2016). Sharing the small moments: Ephemeral social interaction on Snapchat. Information, Communication & Society, 19(7), 956—977. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2015.1084349
6. Binder, J.F., Kenyon, J. (2022). Terrorism and the internet: How dangerous is online radicalization? Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 997390. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.997390
7. Borum, R., Cornell, D.G., Modzeleski, W., Jimerson, S.R. (2010). What can be done about school shootings? A review of the evidence. Educational Researcher, 39(1), 27—37. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X09357620
8. Breckler, S.J. (1984). Empirical validation of affect, behavior, and cognition as distinct components of attitude. Journal of personality and social psychology, 47(6), 1191—1205. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.47.6.1191
9. Cornell, D.G. (2020). Threat assessment as a school violence prevention strategy. Criminology & Public Policy, 19(1), 235—252. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12471
10. Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Anchor Books.
11. Greene-Colozzi, E.A., Schildkraut, J., Arrigo, L., Krebs, L., Klein, B.R. (2025). Social network analysis as a tool for understanding mass shooting prevention: A case study of the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting. Journal of Criminal Justice, 101, Article 102540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102540
12. Hamman, J.J. (2026). The shame spiral in school shootings. Pastoral Psychology, 75, 237—255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-025-01248-w
13. Hogg, M.A. (2014). From uncertainty to extremism: Social categorization and identity processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 338—342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414540168
14. Horgan, J. (2008). From profiles to pathways and roots to routes: Perspectives from psychology on radicalization into terrorism. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 618(1), 80—94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208317539
15. Kerere, J., Cornell, D., Maeng, J. (2024). Student attempts of violence following a school threat assessment. Journal of School Violence, 23(4), 570—581. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2024.2363781
16. Kirkland, D., Fu, T.C., Herbenick, D., Hensel, D.J. (2025). Frequency and predictors of adolescent worry for school gun violence in the United States: Findings from a nationally representative study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 78(1), 166—172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2025.09.007
17. Kruglanski, A.W., Gelfand, M.J., Bélanger, J.J., Sheveland, A., Hetiarachchi, M., Gunaratna, R. (2014). The psychology of radicalization and deradicalization: How significance quest impacts violent extremism. Political Psychology, 35(S1), 69—93. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12163
18. Larkin, R.W. (2009). The Columbine legacy: Rampage shootings as political acts. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(9), 1309—1326. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209332548
19. Levin, J., Madfis, E. (2009). Mass murder at school and cumulative strain: A sequential model. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(9), 1227—1245. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209332543
20. Marwick, A., Clancy, B., Furl, K. (2022). Far-right online radicalization: A review of the literature. The Bulletin of Technology & Public Life, Preprint. https://doi.org/10.21428/bfcb0bff.e9492a11
21. Mayer, M.J., Astor, R.A. (2023). Is school safety mainly about school shootings? Research-informed guidance for the field. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 67(1), 1—8. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2022.2124220
22. Moore, P., Jackson, B.A., Leschitz, J.T., Wolters, N., Goode, T., Diliberti, M.K., Pham, P.F. (2024). Developing practical responses to social media threats against K—12 schools: An overview of trends, challenges, and current approaches. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
23. Mughal, R., DeMarinis, V., Nordendahl, M., Lone, H., Phillips, V., Boyd-MacMillan, E. (2023). Public mental health approaches to online radicalisation: An empty systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(16), Article 6586. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20166586
24. Newman, K.S., Fox, C., Harding, D.J., Mehta, J., Roth, W. (2004). Rampage: The social roots of school shootings. New York: Basic Books.
25. O’Toole, M.E. (2000). The school shooter: A threat assessment perspective. Washington: FBI Critical Incident Response Group.
26. Pérez-Torres, V. (2024). Social media: A digital social mirror for identity development during adolescence. Current Psychology, 43, 22170—22180. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05980-z
27. Peterson, J., Densley, J., Erickson, G. (2021). Communication of intent to do harm preceding mass public shootings in the United States, 1966 to 2019. JAMA Network Open, 4(11), Article e2133073. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.33073
28. Peterson, J., Densley, J., Spaulding, J., Higgins, S. (2023). How mass public shooters use social media: Exploring themes and future directions. Social Media+Society, 9(1), 1—15. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231155101
29. Rajan, S., Reeping, P.M., Ladhani, Z., Vasudevan, L.M., Branas, C.C. (2022). Gun violence in K-12 schools in the United States: Moving towards a preventive (versus reactive) framework. Preventive medicine, 165(A), Article 107280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.107280
30. Scrivens, R., Freilich, J.D., Chermak, S.M., Frank, R. (2024, June 18). Data collection in online terrorism and extremism research: Strengths, limitations, and future directions. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Preprint. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2024.2361957
31. Soh, S., Talaifar, S., Harari, G. (2024). Identity development in the digital context. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18(2), Article e12940. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12940
32. Tajfel, H., Turner, J.C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In: S. Worchel, W.G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7—24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
33. Vossekuil, B., Fein, R.A., Reddy, M., Borum, R., Modzeleski, W. (2002). The final report and findings of the Safe School Initiative: Implications for the prevention of school attacks in the United States. Washington: U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education.
34. Whittaker, J. (2022). Online radicalisation: What we know. Brussels: Radicalisation Awareness Network (RAN), European Commission. URL: https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2023-11/RAN-online-radicalisation_en.pdf (viewed: 25.06.2026).
35. Yang, C.-c., Calvin, A., Choukas-Bradley, S., Leurs, K., Manago, A., Subrahmanyam, K. (2025). Online self-presentation and identity: Insights from diverse and marginalized youth. In: D.A. Christakis, L. Hale (Eds.), Handbook of children and screens: Digital media, development, and well-being from birth through adolescence (pp. 245—252). Cham: Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-69362-5_34