Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy
2024. Vol. 32, no. 3, 116–138
doi:10.17759/cpp.2024320307
ISSN: 2075-3470 / 2311-9446 (online)
Study of Well-Being and Assertiveness Variables among Young People
Abstract
Relevance. In the context of the rapid development of modern urban society, the issues of studying psychological well–being are becoming increasingly in demand. Of greatest interest is the problem of psychological well–being among young people who are just starting their professional careers. An important research component on this problem is assertiveness, which manifests as a certain interconnection with the individual’s psychological well–being. Goal. This study aims to estimate the well–being and assertiveness variables among young people. The study sample (N = 627) consists of young men and women aged 18–34. The study was conducted in Yerevan and some regions of Armenia. Methods. The study includes an assessment of well–being and assertiveness in the groups of employed and unemployed young men and women. We use the BBC Well–Being Scale, Rathus Assertiveness Schedule (RAS) and Sheinov Assertiveness Questionnaire. Results. The high scores (0,624*) on the psychological well–being variable are positively correlated (p<0,001) with young people’s assertive behavior. The study results showed that there is no statistically significant difference in the variables of gender, employment, and education. The Χ² test yielded p values of 0,995 for the gender and education variables, and p values of 0,996 for the employment and education variables. The study results open new opportunities for discussion of the issue from the perspective of the person’s educational attainment. Further discussions may deal with young people’s capacity to analyze situations creatively, find relevant means to achieve goals and manage their behavior. Conclusion. In the groups of young men and women, the variables of relationships, psychological well–being, and assertiveness positively correlated. This conclusion can be investigated in future studies to elicit the factors of young people's psychological readiness for a changeable labor market and to investigate the characteristics of perception of psychological well–being.
General Information
Keywords: well–being, assertiveness, psychological health, behavior, young people
Journal rubric: Empirical Researches
Article type: scientific article
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17759/cpp.2024320307
Funding. The reported study was funded by Science Committee of the Republic of Armenia, project number 21T-5A311.
Received: 06.06.2023
Accepted:
For citation: Gevorgyan S.R., Hakobyan N.R., Kazanchian L.A., Khachatryan A.G. Study of Well-Being and Assertiveness Variables among Young People. Konsul'tativnaya psikhologiya i psikhoterapiya = Counseling Psychology and Psychotherapy, 2024. Vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 116–138. DOI: 10.17759/cpp.2024320307.
Full text
Introduction
Salter [35] underlined the following characteristics of assertive behavior.
- Emotionality of speech: open, spontaneous, and authentic expression of all the feelings experienced verbally.
- Expressiveness of speech: clear non–verbal manifestations of feelings and correspondence between words and non–verbal behaviors.
- Confrontation: as a direct and honest expression of one’s own opinion, without paying attention to the other ones.
- Use of the I pronoun: as an expression of the fact that the person is behind the words, the absence of attempts hides behind vague wording.
- Acceptance of praise: as rejection of self–depreciation and discounting of one's strengths and qualities.
- Improvisation as a spontaneous expression of feelings and needs, day–to–day worries, and refusal to plan.
Based on his clinical experience, Lazarus [27] identified the four most general types of behavior and described the concept of assertiveness and assertive behavior as:
– the ability to say "No";
– the ability to speak openly about feelings and needs;
– the ability to establish contacts, start and end a conversation;
– the ability to openly express positive and negative feelings.
To answer our research questions, we put forward the following hypotheses:
- There is no statistically significant difference in the levels of psychological well–being and assertiveness in the samples differing by independent variables of gender, employment, and education. (H1).
- Assertiveness positively correlates with the variables of psychological well–being and relationships (H2).
Method
Table 1. Contingency characteristics of gender and education of the sample
Gender |
Contingency characteristics |
Education |
Total |
|||||||||||||||
Bachelor |
High school |
Master |
||||||||||||||||
Chi–Squared Test |
||||||||||||||||||
Contingency Table 1 |
Value |
df |
p |
|||||||||||||||
Women |
Count |
106.00 |
104.00 |
103.00 |
314.00 |
|||||||||||||
Expected count |
105.00 |
104.00 |
105.00 |
314.00 |
||||||||||||||
% within row |
33.76 % |
33.12 % |
33.12 % |
100.00 % |
||||||||||||||
% within column |
50.24 % |
50.00 % |
49.76 % |
50.00 % |
||||||||||||||
Men |
Count |
105.00 |
104.00 |
105.00 |
314.00 |
|||||||||||||
Expected count |
105.50 |
104.00 |
104.50 |
314.00 |
||||||||||||||
% within row |
33.44 % |
33.12 % |
33.44 % |
100.00 % |
||||||||||||||
% within column |
49.76 % |
50.00 % |
50.24 % |
50.00 % |
||||||||||||||
Total |
Count |
211.00 |
208.00 |
209.00 |
628.00 |
|||||||||||||
Expected count |
211.00 |
208.00 |
209.00 |
628.00 |
||||||||||||||
% within row |
33.60 % |
33.12 % |
33.28 % |
100.00 % |
||||||||||||||
% within column |
100.00 % |
100.00 % |
100.00 % |
100.00 % |
||||||||||||||
Χ² |
.010 |
2 |
.995 |
|||||||||||||||
Χ² continuity correction |
.010 |
2 |
.995 |
|||||||||||||||
N |
627 |
|
||||||||||||||||
Table 2. Contingency characteristics of employment and education of the sample
Employment |
Contingency characteristics |
Education |
Total |
|||||||||||||||
Bachelor |
High school |
Master |
||||||||||||||||
Chi–Squared Test |
||||||||||||||||||
Contingency Table 2 |
Value |
df |
p |
|||||||||||||||
Unemployed |
Count |
90.00 |
89.00 |
90.00 |
269.00 |
|||||||||||||
Expected count |
90.38 |
89.10 |
89.52 |
269.00 |
||||||||||||||
% within row |
33.46 % |
33.09 % |
33.46 % |
100.00 % |
||||||||||||||
% within column |
42.65 % |
42.79 % |
43.06 % |
42.83 % |
||||||||||||||
Employed |
Count |
121.00 |
119.00 |
119.00 |
359.00 |
|||||||||||||
Expected count |
120.62 |
118.90 |
119.48 |
359.00 |
||||||||||||||
% within row |
33.70 % |
33.15 % |
33.15 % |
100.00 % |
||||||||||||||
% within column |
57.35 % |
57.21 % |
56.94 % |
57.17 % |
||||||||||||||
Total |
Count |
211.00 |
208.00 |
209.00 |
628.00 |
|||||||||||||
Expected count |
211.00 |
208.00 |
209.00 |
628.00 |
||||||||||||||
% within row |
33.60 % |
33.12 % |
33.28 % |
100.00 % |
||||||||||||||
% within column |
100.00 % |
100.00 % |
100.00 % |
100.00 % |
||||||||||||||
Χ² |
.007 |
2 |
.996 |
|||||||||||||||
Χ² continuity correction |
.007 |
2 |
.996 |
|||||||||||||||
N |
628 |
|
||||||||||||||||
According to Tables 1–2, there is no statistically significant difference in the groups of the sample differing by independent variables of gender, employment, and education.
Table 3. Frequentist Scale Reliability Statistics
Estimate |
Cronbach's α |
|||||||||||
Frequentist Individual Item Reliability Statistics |
||||||||||||
Item |
If item dropped |
Item–rest correlation |
Mean |
Sd |
||||||||
Cronbach's α |
||||||||||||
Point estimate |
0.758 |
|||||||||||
Rathus Assertiveness Schedule |
0.702 |
0.553 |
43.954 |
19.585 |
||||||||
Sheinov Assertiveness Questionnaire |
0.669 |
0.586 |
67.420 |
11.478 |
||||||||
psychological well–being |
0.710 |
0.531 |
44.161 |
13.366 |
||||||||
relationships |
0.661 |
0.708 |
59.578 |
10.717 |
||||||||
physical health |
0.807 |
0.265 |
29.390 |
11.351 |
||||||||
Statistics. Statistical analysis was conducted using JASP 0.17.3.0. The normality assumption was checked using the Shapiro–Wilk Test. Shapiro–Wilk Test for most variables was significant (p=.001) meaning that the normality assumption was violated. Levene’s Test was non–significant (p=.990) which means that the criterion of homogeneity of variance was met. We found that the means of the variables of the gender and education subgroups were normally distributed. Despite this, the overall sample (N=627) was not normally distributed. Vickers [45] discussed this phenomenon and underlined that based on the central limit theorem methodology the sample mean may approach normal distribution. Correlational analysis was based on Spearman’s rho.
Results
Beneath we consider the correlation data within the groups by gender, employment, and education variables. (Table 4).
Table 4. Correlation characteristics in the groups of employed and unemployed men and women
Variables |
Employed men |
Unemployed men |
Employed women |
Unemployed women |
||||||||||||||||
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
Psychological well–being |
– |
.57*** |
–.07 |
.35*** |
.57*** |
– |
.39*** |
.04 |
.17 |
.60*** |
– |
.48*** |
–.03 |
.26** |
.66*** |
– |
.61*** |
.03 |
.32*** |
.68*** |
Relationships |
.572*** |
– |
.07 |
.57*** |
.51*** |
.39*** |
– |
.38*** |
.62*** |
.50*** |
.48*** |
– |
.12 |
.62*** |
.44*** |
.61*** |
– |
.10 |
.51*** |
.58*** |
Physical health |
–.07 |
.07 |
– |
.15* |
.39*** |
.04 |
.38*** |
– |
.36*** |
.53*** |
–.03 |
.12 |
– |
.15 |
.40*** |
.03 |
.10 |
– |
.17 |
.44*** |
Rathus Assertiveness Schedule |
.35*** |
.57*** |
.15* |
– |
–.07 |
.17 |
.62*** |
.36*** |
– |
–.06 |
.26** |
.62*** |
.15 |
– |
–.12 |
.32*** |
.51*** |
.17 |
– |
–.07 |
Sheinov Assertiveness Questionnaire |
.57*** |
.51*** |
.39*** |
–.07 |
– |
.60*** |
.50*** |
.53*** |
–.06 |
– |
.66*** |
.44*** |
.40*** |
–.12 |
– |
.68*** |
.58*** |
.44*** |
–.07 |
– |
Note: «*» - p < .05, «**» - p < .01, «***» - p < .001.
Table 5. Descriptive statistics of the variables of assertiveness and socio–demographic variables
Factor 1 Assertiveness variables |
Factor 2 Employment |
Factor 3 Gender |
Factor 4 Education |
Sample size |
Mean |
SD |
SE |
Rathus Assertiveness Schedule |
Employed
|
Men
|
Bachelor |
68 |
41.99 |
20.65 |
2.50 |
High School |
68 |
43.78 |
17.29 |
2.10 |
|||
Master |
68 |
44.49 |
21.03 |
2.55 |
|||
Women
|
Bachelor |
51 |
43.06 |
17.99 |
2.52 |
||
High School |
52 |
41.12 |
21.21 |
2.94 |
|||
Master |
51 |
45.55 |
20.46 |
2.87 |
|||
Unemployed
|
Men
|
Bachelor |
36 |
48.56 |
22.30 |
3.72 |
|
High School |
37 |
46.22 |
18.91 |
3.11 |
|||
Master |
37 |
45.19 |
18.03 |
2.96 |
|||
Bachelor |
53 |
41.00 |
18.43 |
2.53 |
|||
Women |
High School |
53 |
46.04 |
19.22 |
2.64 |
||
Master |
53 |
43.96 |
19.61 |
2.69 |
|||
Shcinov Assertiveness Schedule |
Employed
|
Men |
Bachelor |
68 |
67.31 |
10.91 |
1.32 |
High School |
68 |
67.43 |
12.44 |
1.51 |
|||
Master |
68 |
65.94 |
11.13 |
1.35 |
|||
Women |
Bachelor |
51 |
70.26 |
11.89 |
1.67 |
||
High School |
52 |
66.29 |
10.40 |
1.44 |
|||
Master |
51 |
67.62 |
11.09 |
1.55 |
|||
Unemployed |
Men |
Bachelor |
36 |
66.50 |
9.99 |
1.67 |
|
High School |
37 |
67.30 |
12.16 |
2.00 |
|||
Master |
37 |
69.92 |
13.43 |
2.21 |
|||
Women |
Bachelor |
53 |
67.81 |
12.07 |
1.65 |
||
High School |
53 |
66.87 |
11.78 |
1.62 |
|||
Master |
53 |
66.89 |
10.95 |
1.51 |
Table 6. Descriptive statistics of the variables of assertiveness, psychological well–being, and gender variables
Factor 1 Psychological well–being and assertiveness variables |
Factor 2 Gender |
Sample Size |
Mean |
SD |
SE |
Psychological well–being |
Women |
313 |
44.261 |
13.325 |
313 |
Men |
314 |
44.061 |
13.427 |
314 |
|
Psychological health |
Women |
313 |
28.911 |
11.390 |
313 |
Men |
314 |
29.869 |
11.310 |
314 |
|
Relationships |
Women |
313 |
59.854 |
10.896 |
313 |
Men |
314 |
59.303 |
10.545 |
314 |
|
Rathus Assertiveness Schedule |
Women |
313 |
43.363 |
19.490 |
313 |
Men |
314 |
44.545 |
19.693 |
314 |
|
Sheinov Assertiveness Questionnaire |
Women |
313 |
67.589 |
11.336 |
313 |
Men |
314 |
67.252 |
11.634 |
314 |
The results of descriptive statistics presented in Tables 5–6 show the distribution of the psychological well–being and assertiveness variables in the sample.
Table 7. Analysis of variance for psychological well–being and assertiveness
Variables |
Factor A: Education |
Factor B: Employment |
Factor C: Gender |
Cumulative impact of AxBxC factors |
||||
F |
p |
F |
p |
F |
p |
F |
p |
|
Psychological well–being |
0.077 |
0.926 |
0.186 |
0.667 |
0.031 |
0.861 |
0.449 |
0.638 |
Assertiveness |
0.170 |
0.844 |
1.414 |
0.235 |
1.068 |
0.302 |
1.087 |
0.338 |
Note: differences are significant at p<0,05.
Based on our study findings, we can conclude that both hypotheses have been confirmed. The null hypothesis concerning the lack of statistically significant differences by gender, employment, and education status concerning the variables of well–being and assertiveness is proved (H1). The suggestion that there is a positive correlation between the variables of psychological well–being, relationships, and assertiveness is proved (H2) as well.
Discussion
The study results showed that social relationship is the key aspect in the perception of well–being and assertiveness. Psychological well–being is associated with the social side of life of young men and women, regardless of gender, level of employment, and education. The results of the study show that the perception of psychological well–being and assertiveness is closely linked with the area of the individual’s social relations. The World Health Organization revealed the concept of “health” based on the integrity of the physical, spiritual, and social well–being of the individual. According to the Preamble of the Charter of the World Health Organization, “Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well–being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” [43].
As we saw above, theories of well–being show that the development processes of modern urban society, growing competition in the labor market, and the need to satisfy personal interests are closely related. For young people, these associations manifest themselves in the opportunity to take a place in the social structure of society and satisfy the need for self–actualization. As shown by the data on the characteristics of psychological well–being of the World Health Organization, the main emphasis in the presentation of this phenomenon is placed on the personal growth of the individual, and the ability to quickly adapt to the socio–economic conditions of society. However, the results of this study show that young people perceive psychological well–being and assertiveness as the need to create appropriate systems of social relations, and the individual’s ability to navigate the social environment.
Conclusions
- An integral characteristic of personality is assertiveness, which is associated with the purposefulness, self–reliance, independence, enterprising, and decisiveness of young people. Assertiveness is manifested in the ability to go beyond one's own "Self", to find positive meaning in unfavorably developing situations and adapt himself to existing conditions.
- The results of the study show that assertive behavior in young men and women is associated with the assessment of social relationships as the basis for psychological well–being.
- The attainment of education and employment status has no significant impact on psychological well–being and assertiveness features. Physical health doesn't correlate with general psychological well–being, at least, within the given age range.
- The relationship variable is the most pronounced, and it is significant for the development of assertive behavior among all groups of respondents. This means that among young people the most important feature of well–being is social relationship and communication.
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