Introduction

This issue samples from fields of study in the current landscape of psychology in the West. Specifically, it samples from the fields of neuroscience, complex analytics such as machine learning, modern developmental and clinical psychology issues, and questions of measurement and profiling. The issue includes reviews and empirical studies. The latter are completed with the utilization of both qualitative and quantitative methods. Thus, Blagovechtchenski and colleagues review evoked response potentials (ERP) that are deemed to be markers of various stages of different psychological processes. An ERP is an electrical potential recorded from the nervous system of a human or animal following the presentation of a stimulus, as distinct from spontaneous potentials as detected by an electroencephalogram (EEG). The authors focus their attention on the crossing that is defined as the meeting point between one of the most popular tasks used in the ERP research, the oddball task, and one of the most popular sets of stimuli used to understand emotional processing, the human facial expression stimuli. The oddball paradigm relies on the brain's sensitivity to mark rare deviant stimuli presented pseudo-randomly in a series of repeated standard stimuli. The field has accumulated a wide collection of stimulus types, including stimuli such as sound duration, frequency, intensity, phonetic features, complex music, or speech sequences to be used in various oddball tasks. One such set is a collection of facial expressions communicating human emotions. The authors review the related literature and provide a small-scale illustration of the utilization of facial expressions in research on emotional processing using the oddball paradigm.

ERN research, participants might be asked to respond to frequent standard stimuli and withhold responses to infrequent oddball stimuli. Errors in this context would be responses to the oddball stimuli, which can elicit the ERN. The authors present a narrative review of studies focusing on cognitive and affective facets of the error monitoring process in the context of executive functions using the ERN, summarizing consistencies and inconsistencies in this research and the discussion on what can explain the observed diversity in findings. The contribution from Semenova keeps the reader on the topic of executive functioning but brings the discussion to a different landscape, that is, bi- and multilingualism. She takes on the assertion that has dominated the literature for a while, namely, that bilingualism has been stated to enhance executive functioning, generating the “bilingual advantage” phenomenon. The author critically reviews the existing research literature, highlighting its variability and inconsistency. The author argues that variability in results should be attributed not to the data obtained but rather to the diverse methodological paradigms utilized across studies. Semenova engages with this hypothesis and analyzes the operationalization of bilingualism and executive functions in contemporary research alongside a critical examination of the theoretical underpinnings linking bilingualism and executive functions, demarketing today’s frontiers and outlining future research. Returning the issue to the field of neuroscience, Luschekina and colleagues sample differences in EEG spectral power and behavioral profiles while comparing children with developmental disabilities, specifically, children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and Down syndrome (DS). EEG spectral power refers to the distribution of signal power across different frequency bands within an EEG signal. This distribution was empirically compared in the target groups of children. The authors reported the alterations in bioelectric activity in these groups of children, specifically, increased spectral power of theta in the frontal area and a reduction of EEG spectral power in the occipital alpha band, were partially similar in children with DS and with ASD, albeit less pronounced in DS. A distinctive EEG characteristic of DS was the heightened spectral power of beta rhythm.

Brain activity, recorded in a variety of ways, such as magnetic resonance imaging (structural and functional), fNIRS, EEG, and ERP, among others, can be used not only for research but also for diagnostic purposes. In her review, Sologub cross-referenced three different literatures: the literature on brain imaging, the literature on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and the literature on modern analytics based on the machine learning approach. The question at hand is whether these three pieces of literature can be productively merged for diagnostic purposes. The answer is — there is promise, but the research is not ready for clinical practice just yet. The issue of the utilization of neuroscience techniques for diagnostic purposes is stated to be especially important while working with children with developmental disabilities or young children, as neither group might provide verbal or motor responses with ease. One such technique is eyetracking—a sensor technology that detects and follows a person's gaze in real-time. It involves a system that typically includes one or more cameras, light sources, and computing capabilities to track eye movements. The recent advancement in eye-tracking devices has made them user-friendly and available for all kinds of research and diagnostic tasks. Rebreikina and Liaukovich review the literature on the usage of eye-tracking techniques and state that relevant indicators are generally significantly correlated with those obtained using traditional behavioral techniques. The authors state that, in combination, the application of machine learning and eye-tracking methods may help to create simpler and more effective screening techniques for assessing cognitive processes based on the analysis of eye movement data. Logvinenko continues the discussion of the issues pertaining to the usability of various approaches for diagnostic tasks but takes her reader to the issue of measurement invariance of assessment instruments. The purpose of evaluating diagnostic instruments for measurement invariance is to assess the extent to which a measured construct has comparable meaning across different groups or measurement points to ensure that comparisons of specific discussed groups or assessments to each other are appropriate. The author provides an overview of recent and classic papers discussing conceptual and methodological aspects of invariance testing. Karpova escalates the issue of diagnosing mental health difficulties in general and internalizing disorders in particular in children and adolescents but discusses the relevance and importance of these conditions to public health around the world. The review examines various approaches to defining internalizing disorders by providing a general definition first and then contrasting this definition with that of externalizing disorders. It also comments on the related issues of internalizing disorders’ etiology and treatment. The article concludes with an appeal for a need to develop modernized diagnostic approaches to these disorders. Lebedeva and Ilina provide an overview of the current research on implicit false beliefs. They sample from a variety of different literature, focusing on typical children, children with hearing impairment, and children with autism. They also review the corresponding literature on primates. The authors exemplify a variety of methodological approaches used to elicit specifics of the development of the relevant mental models. Their capsule review touches on a number of relevant selected theories, ranging from the usage of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to the current state of the theory of mind. They embed their discussion in the larger field of studies of social cognition and outline directions for this field that should improve both the quality and quantity of the relevant research. To conclude the issue, Pavlova and Tsatrian ask an interesting question: what is known about a social-psychological portrait of a successful school principal, and can such a portrait be elicited in research? Looking for an answer to this question, the authors utilize the method of focus groups—a qualitative research method where a well-defined group of people (e.g., of a particular age, religious orientation, political views, or profession) assembled to participate in a guided discussion about a particular theme. Pavlova and Tsatrian sampled school principals and their deputies, recorded and processed the discussion, and compared their successful principal profile to an international one. In summary, although heterogeneous in content, the issue is homogeneous in its coverage of a number of recent developments in Western psychology.