Introduction
The study of resilience has a longer history in Western psychology (since the 1970s) and a more recent one in Russia (since 2003). Early research often conceptualized "resilience" as a personality trait facilitating positive adaptation in individuals. Subsequently, researchers began to view this phenomenon as a dynamic, system-oriented construct, reflecting scholars' efforts to integrate this concept across different levels of analysis and within various disciplines (Laktionova, 2025; Makhnach, 2019; Rylskaya, 2014; Paatova, 2019; Saraeva, 2018; Masten, 2018; Theron et al., 2012; Ungar, 2011). We define human resilience as "an integrative mental formation encompassing individual psychological properties, abilities, and qualities, manifested in the processes by which a person manages their own resources: health, vitality, emotional, motivational-volitional, and cognitive spheres, within the context of social and cultural norms and environmental influences" (Makhnach, 2019, pp. 174-175).
Over years of research, several definitions of human resilience have been proposed; most converge on its interpretation as a systemic phenomenon observable under conditions of high risk and adversity. Resilience is also characterized not merely by recovery from a traumatic event, but by subsequent positive adaptation and continued development. As S. Goldstein and R. Brooks observe, "This emerging field of study, which once focused upon those who confronted and overcame adversity has found universal appeal as researchers and mental health professionals examine how the qualities of resilience can be applied to all individuals regardless of life challenges or age" (Goldstein, Brooks, 2023, p. X).
The theoretical approach underpinning the formation and development of resilience in adolescents and youth in this study is L.S. Vygotsky’s cultural-historical theory. The central tenets of this theory provided the epistemological lens through which our investigation examines the characteristics of resilience among young people from Russia and South Africa, as well as the socially and culturally embedded origins of this phenomenon.
Drawing upon the propositions of U. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, we have analyzed studies aimed at examining characteristics attributable to different systems: individual-psychological, social, and cultural. This theory facilitates the elucidation of principles governing the dynamic interrelationship between resilience, risk factors, and protective factors among youth within the context of their native culture.
Thus, the concept of "resilience" has evolved from a static personality trait to a systemic and dynamic construct, a construct crucial for positive human adaptation in challenging circumstances. This evolution underscores its significance in psychological and pedagogical research concerning youth in Russia and South Africa, serving as a foundation for their support and development.
The ideas of L.S. Vygotsky and U. Bronfenbrenner in resilience research
Researchers across numerous countries, engaging with the works of L.S. Vygotsky, emphasize the role of cultural and historical contexts in the development of resilience across a wide range of subjects: from children, adolescents, young adults, and their parents to school and university educators (Edwards, Apostolov, 2007; Mustafa, 2025; Pasqualotto et al., 2015). The development of concepts pertaining to child or adolescent resilience almost invariably incorporates core notions from Vygotsky’s theory: the social environment of development, internalization, the mechanism of interaction between the individual and their social surroundings, social interaction and the social plane of development, cultural transmission, the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), and cultural signs and symbols. According to A. Edwards and A. Apostolov, examining resilience through the lens of cultural-historical theory reflects Vygotsky’s «concerns which high-lights the dialectic between individual and as the social situation of development» (Edwards, Apostolov, 2007, p. 70).
Vygotsky’s ideas concerning child development and its connection to culture reflect a trend towards a deeper understanding of context in development. As Vygotsky wrote: "The word ‘social’ applied to our subject has great significance. Above all, in the broadest sense, it signifies that everything cultural is social. Culture is the product of social life and human social activity, and therefore the very formulation of the problem of the cultural development of behavior directly introduces us to the social plane of development" (Vygotsky, 1983, pp. 145-146). Vygotsky's ideas were later developed not only by psychologists but also by philosophers and sociologists – including P.A. Florensky, E.V. Ilyenkov, A.F. Losev, D.B. Elkonin, and many others. J. Bruner stated: "the primary means of human evolution became the transmission through culture of those skills necessary for the use of previously invented techniques, tools, and instruments" (Bruner, 1977, p. 378). He also regarded cultural transmission as the quintessence of social activity, with its benefit being a fundamental educational attribute of human development (Bruner, 1997).
U. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of development serves, alongside Vygotsky’s theory, as a fundamental theoretical framework in the study of human resilience. According to P. Moen, his student and founder of the Bronfenbrenner Center for Translational Research at Cornell University, it was Bronfenbrenner who played a key role in introducing Vygotsky's work to Western researchers: "How many of us now know (or know better) Vygotsky … because of those (re)introductions in Bronfenbrenner's writings?" (Moen, 2006, p. 256).
Within Bronfenbrenner’s approach, the understanding of resilience shifts from being merely an outcome of the interplay between risk and protective factors to being a systemic characteristic. Development is conceptualized as a dynamic process influenced by nested systems—from the immediate environment (microsystem) to the broader cultural and historical context (macrosystem). This approach, congruent with Vygotsky’s ideas, underscores the mutual influence between the individual and their multi-layered environment, wherein the macrosystem (values, laws, traditions) exerts a formative influence on all other levels.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory enables the modeling and assessment of resilience across various scales, being applied both to analyze the impacts of external factors (family, society, culture) and to develop targeted support programs. Within this framework, resilience is studied as a processual characteristic, with emphasis placed on the conditions under which a child or adolescent maintains it despite stress and adverse circumstances. Thus, the ecological model of human development provides interdisciplinary tools for explaining human socialization and resilience within real-life contexts.
Researchers of resilience, drawing upon the works of Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner, have noted that cultural differences play a significant role in all aspects of the resilience formation process. They influence interactions within the family and school, shaping expectations regarding the behavior of children and adolescents in accordance with their culture or society. M. Ungar discusses the role of social and cultural factors in shaping children's resilience: "The interaction between children’s capacity to develop and the availability of ecological resources to support that development indicates broader social and cultural factors in predictions of resilience. In support of Vygotsky’s hypothesis, a growing body of literature from psychology, as well as sociology, urban planning, social work, and anthropology, is showing that the environment is even more critical to child development than a child’s individual traits." (Ungar, 2011, p. 4).
Consequently, the theoretical foundation for investigating youth resilience lies in the integration of L.S. Vygotsky’s cultural-historical theory and U. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. Vygotsky’s approach, emphasizing the role of social interaction, cultural context, internalization, and the ZPD, elucidates the mechanism of resilience formation through cultural influences. Bronfenbrenner’s approach extends this perspective by representing development as a dynamic process within interconnected systems—from the immediate environment (microsystem) to the broader cultural-historical context (macrosystem).
L.S. Vygotsky and U. Bronfenbrenner in the pedagogical practice of South African educators
Research grounded in the theoretical works of L.S. Vygotsky and U. Bronfenbrenner demonstrates the potential to enhance the effectiveness of the educational process and, consequently, the resilience of children and youth within the educational environment. This potential is linked to "the potential for applying cultural-historical psychology as a scientific system relevant to supporting all practices without exception where the ‘human factor’ must be considered" (Rubtsov et al., 2023, p. 168).
A foundational element of several studies by South African educators and psychologists is the synthesis of theoretical principles from L.S. Vygotsky and U. Bronfenbrenner in developing a sociocultural perspective within the South African context. Specifically, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, with its emphasis on the ZPD, serves as a framework for examining the social and cultural specificities of language instruction in schools, utilizing scaffolding techniques. Scaffolding is understood not merely as a passive process of support from a more knowledgeable other, but as interwoven with concepts of agency, reflection, self-directed learning, and the expansion of existing knowledge boundaries within the ZPD (Ness, 2022). Applying the ZPD concept, a balanced and age-appropriate approach to language teaching has been developed, focusing on cultivating children's contextual sensitivity (Abakah, 2023). Employing a sociocultural perspective enables investigation into how the South African context, with its diverse linguistic landscape, influences the integration of English language learning skills. Vygotsky’s concept of the ZPD and Bruner’s "scaffolding" underscore the importance of assistance provided to a child developing and functioning at the growing edge of their capabilities, with support from an experienced adult (Margolis, 2020; Beck, 2024).
A complex challenge is language instruction in South Africa's multilingual classrooms. "The challenges faced by beginner teachers highlight a critical disconnect between the theoretical knowledge they acquired during their initial teacher education and the practical realities of their classrooms, where the language of instruction often differs from the students' primary language" (Mpofu, 2025, p. 8). The author emphasizes that the ZPD is not merely a theoretical framework but a dynamic tool that educators utilize to create a supportive learning environment.
Thus, the theoretical principles of L.S. Vygotsky and U. Bronfenbrenner also contribute to understanding how South African teachers conceptualize and interpret their language teaching experiences within the ZPD, embedded within social and cultural contexts. The theoretical foundation underpinning practice allows for a comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by South African teachers in language instruction.
Researchers in South Africa have increasingly recognized that learning is sociocultural in nature and is substantially dependent on the learning environment, context, and culture of education. Not only teachers but also learners themselves are active participants in the co-construction of knowledge within their social and cultural milieu – consistent with Vygotsky’s theory (Okoye, 2023). Drawing on Vygotsky's work, a pedagogical model for South African students was developed to facilitate their comprehension of abstract concepts. Through this approach, analysis of student discourse indicates the emergence of research interest and an enrichment of speech patterns, demonstrating students' logical reasoning in discussing scientific topics and, overall, their cognitive development (Hardman, 2024).
Another aspect of applying the ZPD concept is found in the instruction of schoolchildren and university students, based on principles of Ubuntu, which cater to the diverse cultural and social needs of learners. Collaborative learning among children from different cultural and linguistic groups, grounded in the scaffolding process correlating with Vygotsky’s ZPD, supports cognitive development and inclusive education. This aids in achieving the goals of fostering children's resilience through mutual support and cooperation (Matahela, 2025; Nardacchione, Peconio, 2022). For learners, significant adults become external protective factors for resilience. Research indicates that a supportive classroom environment, organized in accordance with Ubuntu principles, fosters a sense of community among students, which enhances learning outcomes (Sparks, Louw, 2023).
Importantly, such studies raise questions regarding the applicability of human development theories formulated within a different cultural tradition – that of so-called "minority world" countries. It is known that the global population of adolescents and youth is growing: 1.3 billion young people constitute one-sixth of the current global population (UNICEF, 2023). The majority of them (85%) reside in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America, regions referred to as the "majority world" (Draper et al., 2022).
Consequently, researchers pose the question: should one discard the use of resilience concepts developed in other contexts and cultures, and instead advocate for a more profound understanding of resilience as a dynamic construct determined by specific context and culture? L. Theron and colleagues drew attention to how the resilience of South African youth resonates with traditional Afrocentric conceptions of life. The integration of intrapersonal and interpersonal constructs is reflected in the development of their original conceptualization of youth resilience as a culturally-mediated process with an Afrocentric emphasis on the interconnectedness of the individual and community, encompassing the social ecology (Theron et al., 2012).
The study of human development within diverse ecological and sociocultural contexts continues, informed by the theoretical contributions of scholars from "minority world" countries (L.S. Vygotsky, U. Bronfenbrenner, T.S. Weisner). Simultaneously, a striving is noted among researchers from "majority world" countries to identify fundamental and universal developmental processes derived not solely from data obtained from a limited segment of the world’s population – from "minority world" countries – which can only partially explain the developmental processes of youth residing in "majority world" countries that are underrepresented in psychology (Abubakar et al., 2024). This position resonates with the contemporary interpretation of Vygotsky by A.E. Muthivhi, who posits that his work provides "important methodological and theoretical tools for interrogating contemporary post-apartheid pedagogy and its underlying epistemological foundations. This conception … offers new insights into possible research trajectories geared toward uncovering neocolonial and neoliberal practices and approaches that promote forms of rationality and objectivity which continue to diminish and deny the legitimacy and validity of culturally situated knowledge practices and traditions under the guise of neutrality and objectivity" (Muthivhi, 2025, p. 142).
As an illustration of enacting the legitimacy and validity of culturally situated practices and traditions within post-apartheid pedagogy and psychology, the "I am Brave" intervention program was implemented among 9–12-year-old children from a disadvantaged community in the Western Cape province. This program fostered resilience and coping skills, improved communication, and reduced anxiety among the children (Myburgh et al., 2021).
Thus, the synthesis of theoretical ideas from L.S. Vygotsky and U. Bronfenbrenner serves in South Africa as a productive foundation for addressing pressing pedagogical and psychological challenges related to multilingualism, inclusion, and cultural diversity. The ZPD concept and the scaffolding process constitute practical tools for creating supportive learning environments and developing cognitive skills in classrooms. Concurrently, the application of these theories, originating in a different cultural context, naturally confronts South African researchers and practitioners with questions regarding their adaptation and reinterpretation. This facilitates progress towards developing genuinely inclusive and relevant pedagogy that acknowledges the legitimacy of local knowledge traditions and overcomes colonial stereotypes.
Empirical study of the socio-cultural conditionality of youth resilience in South Africa and Russia
The aim of the study was to identify context-specific and universal characteristics pertaining to different systems that support the resilience of Russian and South African youth (individual, social, and cultural). The research is grounded in U. Bronfenbrenner’s socio-ecological approach and L.S. Vygotsky’s cultural-historical theory.
Research question: Does the structure of resilience among young people from Russia and South Africa indeed possess social and cultural conditionality? The substantial differences in the socio-cultural characteristics of the two countries allowed us to seek an answer to this question.
This study involved the parallel application of the same set of instruments in two different national contexts. Data were drawn from the "Resilience in Youth in Stressful Environments" (RYSE) study. The project was developed by L. Theron (South Africa) and M. Ungar (Canada) (Theron et al., 2022a; Ungar et al., 2021). The RYSE psychological assessment battery includes scales and questionnaires enabling the evaluation of risk factors, protective factors, and resources among youth residing in ecologically disadvantaged regions. Traumatic symptomatology, depression, PTSD, and adverse socioeconomic conditions were considered as risk factors.
Instruments:
1. The Child and Youth Resilience Measure (CYRM) (Ungar, Liebenberg, 2011), developed within the framework of U. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model, was used to assess individual and social resources among children and youth. In Russia, the measure has been adapted (Laktionova, Makhnach, 2007) and employed in our work (Laktionova, 2025; Makhnach et al., 2022).
2. The Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1996);
3. The Child Post-Traumatic Stress Reaction Index (CPTS-RI), adapted for youth (Frederick et al., 1992);
4. The Impairment Associated with Traumatic Symptoms Scale (IATSS) (Ruchkin et al., 2004);
5. The "Parental Supervision" and "Parental Warmth" subscales from the Parenting Scale (as cited in Ruchkin et al., 2004; Makhnach et al., 2021, p. 18).
The empirical study sample comprised 810 Russian participants (Group 1) from St. Petersburg, Kirishi, Vyborg, Cherepovets, Chita, Krasnokamensk, and Smolensk (age range 15–24 years, mean age = 18,49 ± 1,87 years). The South African sample (Group 2) consisted of 891 participants (mean age = 19,58 ± 1,36 years) from Sasolburg and the township of Zamdela. The majority of participants (85.7%) self-identified as Black African (Makhnach et al., 2021; Theron et al., 2022).
Results
To test the hypothesis, a comparison of the assessed indicators from the Child and Youth Resilience Measure was conducted using Student's t-test. The obtained data indicate "significant differences between the two samples on all resilience indicators (p ≤ 0,001). With a significantly higher score for 'Individual Resilience' in Group 1 compared to the sample from Group 2 (45,91 ± 7,12; 28,01 ± 4,42, respectively), the values for 'Family Resilience' (28,73 ± 5,64; 30,07 ± 4,71), 'Contextual Resilience' (36,34 ± ,79; 55,15 ± 8,02) and 'Total Resilience' (110,98 ± 17,32; 113,27 ± 14,43), as well as the religiosity of South African youth, are significantly higher than among Russians. Thus, 'the primary resilience resources in the South African sample are environmental and, foremost, contextual resources of culture, religious and spiritual beliefs, and education, whereas in the Russian sample, the primary resources are individual resources'" (Makhnach et al., 2021, p. 20).
Such differences between the two samples can presumably be explained by the cultural traditions in which the young people were raised. As M. Blessin and colleagues argue, research "should also consider that different cultural contexts can lead to different stressors and may even require different resilience factors that need to be acknowledged and fostered in other, better fitting, ways" (Blessin et al., 2022, p. 2). For South African youth, social skills, education, and spirituality are closely intertwined with the traditional African culture in which they are raised (van Rensburg et al., 2019) – in the spirit of adhering to customs of interdependence and the value of Ubuntu. Interdependence signifies belonging to a community and embodies a collective understanding of education, harmony, and spirituality. Ubuntu calls for deep respect for the human community, including ancestors, which decenters the individual. Accordingly, children are raised to rely on the collective while also contributing to it. The collective extends beyond the immediate and extended family: all people are respected and represent potential social capital. The collective also includes spiritual beings (e.g., gods and/or ancestors), and traditional socialization encourages spirituality and faith-based practices. Associated with this is the concept of "family community" and the recognition of tradition: raising children is a collective responsibility. Consequently, social skills among South African youth are more strongly associated with contextual rather than individual resilience resources (van Rensburg et al., 2019). Meanwhile, Russian youth, predominantly urban, tend more towards individualistic culture (Martsinkovskaya, Poleva, 2017) and, as a result, exhibit higher levels of individual resilience.
Thus, if in Russia interventions aimed at developing social skills are targeted at enhancing individual resources, in South Africa they are targeted at supplementing contextual support encompassing educational, spiritual, and cultural resources (van Rensburg et al., 2019).
Traumatic symptomatology, depression, and PTSD (post-traumatic stress reaction) were examined as risk factors in the study. Their severity proved significantly higher among adolescents from South Africa (depression score: Group 1 9,86 ± 9,85; Group 2 15,38 ± 9,91), PTSD (Group 1 48,12 ± 11,78; Group 2 50,49 ± 11,43), and total traumatic symptoms score (Group 1 4,64 ± 2,01; Group 2 6,16 ± 2,70) (p ≤ 0,001). "Presumably, the presence of individual resources and a more favorable assessment of the safety and comfort of their place of residence make Russian young people less vulnerable in difficult situations, ensuring their psychological resilience to stress" (Makhnach et al., 2021, p. 20).
The majority of young men and women from disadvantaged South African communities lack access to psychological assistance. Accordingly, it is important to study the specificities of family upbringing as a resource contributing to the strengthening of youth resilience and mental health. Research has identified associations between the mental health of young people and parental behavioral patterns—control and warmth. This expands prior understandings of the protective value of parental control and warmth in disadvantaged community contexts, demonstrating that moderate levels of control and below-average levels of warmth are less conducive to adolescent mental health compared to moderate control combined with elevated levels of parental warmth. The necessity for parental control is linked to concerns for safety, while their warmth is often diminished due to the stress of residing in a disadvantaged community. However, the fact that the majority of the sample participants (83.61%) reported above-average levels of parental warmth refutes the notion that warm support is unlikely in disadvantaged communities (Theron et al., 2022b).
For Russian girls, the most important resource associated with the reduction of depressive symptomatology is external support received from society (Makhnach et al., 2022). For boys, the reduction of depressive psychopathology is simultaneously associated with all components of resilience resources (individual, family, and contextual) (Makhnach et al., 2022, p. 21). This may also account for their greater emotional stability, with differences lying in the ability to utilize these resources. In both samples, a gender effect was observed—higher levels of depressive symptoms were noted among girls, and higher symptoms of behavioral problems among boys (Makhnach et al., 2022; Theron et al., 2022). Moreover, among young people from South Africa, these were exacerbated when parental control was combined with low warmth.
Thus, the collaborative research with colleagues from South Africa has once again demonstrated the necessity of considering the multi-level dynamic determinants of resilience and its sensitivity to socio-cultural particularities (A. Masten, M. Rutter, L. Theron, M. Ungar). This necessitates holistic interventions affecting multiple systems simultaneously, underscoring the relevance of the ideas of L.S. Vygotsky and U. Bronfenbrenner.
Conclusion
The findings from research on youth resilience, grounded in the works of L.S. Vygotsky and U. Bronfenbrenner, highlight significant cultural differences between Russian and South African youth. These findings play an important role in understanding fundamental and universal developmental processes and the underlying mechanisms of resilience formation. Together, these theories enable the study of resilience not as a static trait, but as a dynamic characteristic formed in the dialectic between the activity of the adolescent or young person and the resources of their multi-level social environment, in which cultural factors play a determining role. The development of resilience cultivation models that integrate universal scientific principles with local socio-cultural realities is therefore increasingly pertinent. Common theoretical approaches enable scholars from Russia and South Africa to conduct collaborative research and engage in intellectual exchange, thereby enriching the academic discourse in both countries.
Limitations. When summarizing the results, qualitative data that would clarify the obtained results were not included.