Psychological well-being of a school teacher: predictors and correlations of the PERMA model

Introduction

The study of psychological well-being (PWB) among adults is inseparable from the study of professional activity. Research findings indicate that PWB enhances work performance (Jiménez et al., 2021), stress tolerance (Lakioti, Stalikas, & Pezirkianidis, 2020), and promotes health (Kern et al., 2015). Findings also demonstrate that teacher PWB affects teaching effectiveness, student development, and educational management (Duckworth, Quinn, & Seligman, 2009), as well as increases educators' commitment to school (Cameron & Lovett, 2015). It has been shown to contribute to self-development (Parker et al., 2012) and to reduce stress and professional burnout (Buric et al., 2019). Among various approaches to understanding well-being, a common and relevant focus of research is the search for psychological mechanisms that ensure the achievement of PWB. These mechanisms may include personal attributes such as proactive coping strategies (Dekhtyarenko, Savchenko, & Shlyagina, 2023), agency (Volkova, 2024), self-development and self-esteem (Minyurova & Zausenko, 2013), and self-assessment of appearance (Labunskaya, 2023).

In the PERMA model, PWB is attributed to five core components (domains): positive emotions, engagement in activities, relationships, meaning and achievement; along with four additional domains that describe negative emotions, happiness, health, and loneliness (Seligman, 2011). The primary strength of the PERMA model lies in its holistic approach to PWB, contrasting with more limited conceptualizations (e.g., job satisfaction, job engagement, occupational stress, and burnout). Additionally, it integrates hedonic and eudaemonic traditions (Goodman et al., 2018). Research on the PERMA model explores educational strategies aimed at enhancing students' PWB (Brunzell, Stokes, Waters, 2016; Lambert, Passmore, Joshanloo, 2019). Empirical evidence demonstrates a positive correlation between teacher emotions and the development of students' self-confidence (Brunzell et al., 2016; Fredrickson, 2001); engagement in activities has been shown to promote high-complexity tasks (Seligman et al., 2009). The establishment of positive relationships with students has been shown to improve learning outcomes (Gable et al., 2004). Furthermore, meaningful activities have been identified as a means to optimize students' maturation processes (Brunzell et al., 2016; Seligman et al., 2009). Finally, achievement has been shown to provide a foundation for overcoming challenges (Brunzell et al., 2016).

Although there are studies of PWB based on the PERMA model (Adler & Seligman, 2016; Donaldson, van Zyl, & Donaldson, 2022; Jiménez et al., 2021; Kroencke et al., 2023; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Shaik, Baboo, & Rajan, 2023), there are not enough studies on teachers' PWB (Haschera & Waberb, 2021; Nguyen, 2024; Reppa et al., 2023). Pedagogical activity is characterized by a number of peculiarities, including, first of all, its communicative nature and, consequently, the inherently high semantic load of relationship components in the PERMA model. This requires specialized research into teachers' PWB.

The objective of the present study was to identify the characteristics of Russian teachers' PWB and to determine its social and demographic predictors and correlates. The study focused on the PWB of general education school teachers (middle and high school), considering the predictors and correlates of PWB. These characteristics are proposed for use in comparative studies in accordance with OECD recommendations for inclusion as results in the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS).

An additional task of the study was to establish normative values for Russian teachers' PWB based on the PERMA profiler tool.

Materials and methods

The study of teachers' PB was conducted using the PERMA-Profiler questionnaire. This tool enables the assessment of the expression of five main components (domains) of the PERMA model - "Positive Emotions" (P), "Engagement" (E), "Relationships" (R), "Meaning" (M), "Achievements" (A), and four additional components- "Happiness" (H), "Negative Emotions" (NE), "Health" (HE), "Loneliness" (L).

The data represent a synthesis of the results of three independent studies, each of which included an adapted Russian-language version of the questionnaire as a part of diagnostic package (Isaeva, Akimova, Volkova, 2022b) and questions about social and demographic characteristics of the respondents. These studies used convenience samples, which were used to study PWB indicators and characteristics of teachers' professional and personal development. The methodological tools employed in the three studies differed depending on the specific objectives of each study.

Sample 1. The first study included a sample of 447 teachers from two federal districts of the Russian Federation. The sample consisted of teachers from these districts, including educators in general education schools, of whom 376 (84,1%) were women and 71 (15,9%) were men. The average age of the participants was 37.2 years (standard deviation SD = 12,5). Their work experience ranged from a minimum of one year to a maximum of 47 years. The objective of the research was to explore personal resources in professional teaching activity and included the study of motivation and passion for the profession using the "Professional Motivation Questionnaire" (PMO-2) (Osin et al., 2017), the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) (Kutuzova, 2006; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004), as well as an examination of teacher agency characteristics using the "Structure of Agency" questionnaire (Volkova, 2024).

Sample 2. The sample included 141 teachers from general education schools in a large city, among whom 123 (87,2%) were women and 18 (12,8%) were men. The mean age of the participants was 44.6 years (standard deviation SD = 11,9). The range of work experience varied from one year to 43 years. The objective of the study was to explore retention in the profession and included the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004), the Q12 (Gallup) questionnaire to measure teachers' commitment to their school (Fredrickson, 2000), and a questionnaire to assess teachers' self-efficacy.

Sample 3. The sample included 430 teachers: 385 (89,5%) identified as female and 45 (10,5%) as male. The average age of the participants was 43.4 years (standard deviation SD = 12,5), and their work experience ranged from 0 to 52 years. This subsample was selected from a larger study of PWB participants. The study was conducted in 37 regions across four federal districts of the Russian Federation. It employed a multifaceted approach, encompassing not only the examination of teachers' PWB but also their self-assessment of professional achievements, job satisfaction, and interactions with pupils and colleagues.

The sample of the study included 1,018 general education teachers, of whom 884 (86,8%) were female and 134 (13,2%) male. However, it should be noted that only the results obtained from middle and high school teachers were selected for subsequent analysis. Data were collected from 2022 to 2023 and stored in the database of an affiliated organization. The study employed an online survey form and was conducted on a voluntary, non-reimbursable, and anonymous basis. The results were processed using methods of descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and correlation analysis (Pearson). The statistical software package IBM SPSS Statistics 26 was used for data processing.

Results

Social and demographic characteristics of teachers of the research samples are presented in Table 1; descriptive statistics for the total sample of teachers are presented in Table 2.

Table 1. Social and demographic characteristics of the research sample

Note: * -- for men, age group 60+; ** - only teachers of general education schools (middle and high schools).

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for the total sample of teachers /(N = 1018)

The general level of well-being, as well as the domains of P, E, R, M, and A, are above average and have shifted toward high values. Compared to the research samples of the authors-developers of the questionnaire (Butler & Kern, 2016), as well as to samples of teachers from other countries (Haschera & Waberb, 2021; Nguyen, 2024; Reppa et al., 2023), the values of PWB in the Russian teachers' sample are higher, while the values of NE, L, and HE are lower.

In comparison to respondents from the general Russian sample (Isaeva, Akimova, Volkova, 2022a), teachers demonstrated equivalent overall levels of PWB as their peers engaged in other activities (values of indicators for the 18–35 age group): Welch's t-test = 0,5755, p = 0,57. There is no significant difference in the scores of the domains R, M, A, and H (Welch's t-test values ranging from 0,2024 to 0,4002; 0,06 ≤ p ≤ 0,84). However, the remaining domains differ: educators have significantly higher engagement scores (Welch's t(2,1658) = 2.17, p = 0,03), are significantly worse at assessing their health (Welch's t(8,5181) = 8,52, p = 0,00), experience more positive emotions (Welch's t(2,9844) = 2,98, p = 0,00), more often experience negative emotions (Welch's t(2,6741) = 2.67, p = 0,00), and feel lonely (Welch's t(5,0986) = 5,10, p = 0,00). Compared to preschool teachers (Volkova et al., 2023), school teachers show lower expression across all domains of PWB (Welch's t-values ranging from 6,0859 to 11,79; p = 0,00). Teachers also have lower happiness and health scores and higher scores on the L and NE scales (Welch's t-values ranging from 11,80 to 16,01; p = 0,00) than preschool teachers.

Predictors and correlates of school teachers' PWB in the research samples are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Predictors and correlates of teachers' psychological well-being

Note: GWB – General indicator of psychological well-being); N – number of respondents; M –mean; SD – standard deviation; F – Fisher’s test value; df – number of degrees of freedom; p – level of statistical significance; η2 – effect size; RAI – relative autonomy index; 1 – data from sample 1; 2 – data from sample 2; 3 – data from sample 3; total – data from the total sample; * – p < 0,01; ** p < 0,001.

A multitude of social and demographic factors have been identified as predictors of school teachers' PWB. These factors include age, region of residence, marital status, and the presence of children. Older age, being married, and having children have been shown to increase the level of PWB. Conversely, a decrease in PWB was observed in regions located closer to the center, characterized by higher population density and the absence of ethnic autonomies in their composition. The study found no significant associations between teachers' PWB and gender, place of residence (urban or rural), work experience, or qualification category.

The correlates of the general level of school teachers' PWB and the domains P, E, M, and A are as follows: autonomous motivation, energy, enthusiasm, absorption in activities, developed agency, high self-esteem, commitment to school, job satisfaction, and good relations with colleagues and students (predominantly of medium strength). Of the five main domains of PWB, the relationships domain exhibited the fewest links with the characteristics under consideration and was associated with job satisfaction, relationships with colleagues and students, autonomous motivation, teacher agency, commitment to the organization, and was not associated with passion for activity or professional achievements. Teachers' self-esteem regarding their professional achievements was found to be unrelated to PWB, except for a weak relationship with involvement in activities.

Discussion

Russian teachers exhibited higher levels of psychological well-being compared to their international counterparts. Variations in PWB levels among residents of different regions are associated with factors such as geographical distance from the capital city, population density, and the presence of national autonomy. The type of settlement (city or village) was found to be non-significant. The findings suggest that PWB is a predominantly socially and culturally influenced characteristic, not only in the context of studying the organizational culture of schools but also in the context of examining the social, national, and even political cultures of the regions where teachers reside and work. This is particularly relevant in the context of contemporary migration policy issues. However, the question of PWB's social and cultural conditionality requires further investigation and may represent a promising avenue for future research.

Our study does not confirm the viewpoint about the low level of PB among modern teachers (Minyurova, Zausenko, 2013; Pisarevskaya, 2019; Taylor et al., 2024; Toropova, Myrberg, Johansson, 2021). However, the content of the PWB domains has its own specifics. Modern Russian teachers are similar to their peers in terms of the expression of the general level of PWB. They feel happy to the same extent, believe that their lives have significance and meaning, strive to achieve their goals, and feel capable of accomplishing the tasks set for them. However, teachers appear to be more engaged in their work: school teachers have higher levels of work engagement. Moreover, school teachers' work engagement increases with age. Nonetheless, this involvement in work presents a serious challenge for teachers: balancing work activity and personal life. Teachers' involvement is a correlate of their self-efficacy assessment: teachers are not just absorbed in work; they feel competent and effective in their professional activities, which is an important component of PWB in adult professional life.

In the present study, the hypothesis that PWB is associated with autonomous motivation, passion for activity, and teacher agency was confirmed. The prevalence of autonomous motivation types in teacher activities, compared to externally controlled motivation (Fuller, Waite, Torres, 2016; Klaeijsen, Vermeulen, Martens, 2017; Töre, 2020), was further investigated. The teacher's PWB was found to be influenced by the following factors: passion for activity (Granziera & Perera, 2019; Pourtousi & Ghanizadeh, 2020), and developed agency (Volkova, 2024).

A distinguishing characteristic of contemporary educators is a pervasive tendency to diminish their own joy and contentment in life, while concurrently exhibiting symptoms of sadness, anxiety, and anger. This phenomenon likely reflects challenges in emotion regulation, particularly in the context of emotional intelligence development among teachers (Monteagudo et al., 2019). Concurrently, these tendencies may indicate suboptimal organizational structures within teachers' work environments, a substantial emotional burden, inadequate multitasking abilities, and a high degree of external control.

Given the communicative nature of pedagogical activity, it was hypothesized that the Relationships domain would exhibit higher values in the overall model of the teacher's PWB. However, the findings of this study indicated that the domain of a contemporary teacher is expressed to the same extent as that of other respondents, which may suggest a decline in teachers' communicative competence and a concomitant devaluation of the significance of pedagogical communication.

Another limitation in the development of PWB was teachers' perception of their own health. Modern school teachers are not satisfied with their physical health and consider themselves less healthy than other people of the same age and gender. Meanwhile, subjective representations of health are an important resource for PWB (Deaton, 2008; Howell, Kern, Lyubomirsky, 2007), without which its analysis in modern education becomes incomplete.

Work experience and qualification category were not related to teachers' PWB, just as it was noted in the analysis of preschool teachers' PWB, which shows the predominant influence of general conditions in teachers' lives compared to professional activity. However, characteristics of professional activity act as correlates of PWB. In particular, certainty of work expectations, working conditions, respect and care, opportunities for self-development—these characteristics of school organizational culture, which form a teacher's commitment to school as a specific organization, are significantly related to PWB.

Conclusions

Summarizing our discussion and the results of the study, we note the following:

1. The PWB of Russian teachers has a similar level of quantitative expression as in the general population of respondents in the Russian sample. However, the expression of PWB domains among Russian teachers is specific: teachers are more involved in activities, there is an imbalance of negative affect (negative emotions are expressed to a greater extent and positive emotions to a lesser extent), and positive assessments of their physical health are reduced.
2. The interaction component within the structure of PWB is not characterized by significant expression, which may be a limitation in the productive and effective performance of professional activity.
3. School teachers' PWB is more influenced by variables reflecting their well-being in their personal lives.
4. Stratification variables such as age, region of residence, marital status, and having children are predictors of school teachers' PWB.
5. Older age, presence of family and children, as well as living in regions far from the center with lower population density and having national autonomies contribute to the preservation of PWB.
6. Teacher PWB is associated with the development of autonomous motivation, vigor, enthusiasm, engagement, subjectivity, and high self-efficacy scores.
7. A relationship has been established between teachers' PWB and school organizational culture; however, the nature of this relationship requires further study and could be the subject of separate research.
8. The descriptive statistics for the overall PWB measure and the core domains of the PERMA model can be considered normative when studying teacher PWB.

Limitations. One important limitation of the study was the sample's gender distribution. Although the study sample reflected the trend of men and women in Russian schools, the insufficient number of men in the sample may have been the reason for the unidentified relationship between PWB and gender.

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